On the Use of Incentive Pay in Chinese State-owned Enterprises【外文翻译】.doc

1、原文ONTHEUSEOFINCENTIVEPAYINCHINESESTATEOWNEDENTERPRISESTHEROLEOFHIERARCHYBODMER,FRANK1INTRODUCTIONANIMPORTANTAIMOFCHINESEECONOMICREFORMSHASBEENTHEIMPROVEMENTOFTHEINCENTIVESINSTATEOWNEDENTERPRISESSOESBEFOREREFORMS,WORKERSENJOYEDALMOSTABSOLUTEJOBSECURITYWAGESWERETIEDTOASENIORITYSYSTEM,ANDDIDNOTDEPENDON

2、EFFORTTHISSYSTEMHASBEENRELAXED,ANDITHASATLEASTINTHEORYBECOMEPOSSIBLETODISMISSWORKERS,ORTOTIETHEIRSALARYTOTHEIRPERFORMANCEMOSTPROMINENTLY,WORKERCOMPENSATIONHASBEENMADEDEPENDENTONRESULTSOFENTERPRISEACTIVITYSUCHASPROFITSORTHEATTAINMENTOFOUTPUTTARGETSTHUS,INCENTIVESFORWORKERSTOCONTRIBUTEEFFORTSHOULDHAVE

3、BEENIMPROVEDALSO,THEROLEOFTHETOPMANAGERHASCHANGEDWHILEHEWASMAINLYARECIPIENTOFORDERSBEFORETHEBEGINNINGOFREFORMS,HEHASSTARTEDTOENJOYAUTONOMYANDRESPONSIBILITYFORAVARIETYOFDECISIONSTHEEVIDENCEONTHELABORREFORMSISGENERALLYFAIRLYPOSITIVEITHASBEENFOUNDTHATBONUSPAYMENTSHAVEASTRONGLYPOSITIVEEFFECTONFIRMPRODUC

4、TIVITYANDTHEREISEVIDENCEFORADEVELOPINGLABORMARKETFORTOPMANAGERSHOWEVER,ITHASALSOBEENFOUNDTHATTHEWAGESTRUCTUREREMAINEDCOMPRESSEDATTHEENDOFTHE1980STHECOMPRESSEDWAGESTRUCTUREISSOMETHINGOFAPUZZLEIFONETHINKSTHATWAGESHAVEBECOMEDEPENDENTONPERFORMANCEINTHISCASE,ONEWOULDRATHEREXPECTANINCREASINGWAGEDISPERSION

5、THECOMPRESSEDWAGESTRUCTUREALSOCONTRADICTSTHEIDEATHATMANAGERSHAVEBEENGIVENMORERESPONSIBILITIESCERTAINLY,THEYHADTOBECOMPENSATEDFORTHISINCREASEDRESPONSIBILITY,TOENSURETHATTHEYACTEDINTHEINTERESTSOFTHEFIRMAFURTHERPUZZLEISHOWTHEBONUSSYSTEMPROVEDTOBEASSUCCESSFULASITAPPARENTLYWASGIVENTHEWELLKNOWNFREERIDERPR

6、OBLEMSOFTEAMCOMPENSATIONTHEPRESENTPAPERINVESTIGATESTHISAPPARENTCONTRADICTIONITFINDSTHATBELOWTHESURFACEOFAFAIRLYCOMPRESSEDWAGESTRUCTUREMUCHCANBEFOUNDWHICHFOLLOWSTHEORIESOFINCENTIVEPAYFIRST,ITISFOUNDTHATTHESENSITIVITYOFPAYTOPERFORMANCEISHIGHERFORHIGHERLEVELSOFTHEHIERARCHYSECOND,EVIDENCEISFOUNDTHATTHEI

7、NTERNALSALARYSYSTEMASYSTEMOFINTRAFIRMCONTRACTSHASBEENIMPORTANTINPROVIDINGINTRAFIRMCONTROLANDTHEREBYIMPROVINGINCENTIVESBYINCREASINGTHETRANSPARENCYANDREDUCINGTHEMONITORINGNEUDS,ITINCREASESTHELINKFROMPAYTOPERFORMANCEFORLOWERLEVELSOFTHEHIERARCHYANDDECREASESITFORHIGHERLEVELSITISALSOFOUNDTOHAVETIGHTENEDTH

8、ELINKFROMPAYTOPERFORMANCEOVERALL,ATLEASTWHENPROFITSARETAKENASAPERFORMANCEMEASUREFURTHER,ITHASHADAPOSITIVEEFFECTONFIRMPRODUCTIVITYTHECONCLUSIONISTHATUNDERTHESURFACEOFAFAIRLYRIGIDWAGESYSTEMMUCHCANBEFOUNDWHICHFOLLOWSMODERNTHEORIESOFINCENTIVEPAY2ASHORTOVERVIEWOFTHEREFORMMEASURESBEFORETHESTARTOFECONOMICR

9、EFORMS,BOTHCOMPENSATIONANDEMPLOYMENTWEREDETERMINEDBYTHESTATEWAGESHADBEENSTAGNANTFORANUMBEROFYEARS,ANDDIDNOTDEPENDONANYMEASURESOFENTERPRISEORWORKERPERFORMANCETHEWAGESYSTEMWASBASEDMAINLYONSENIORITY,WITHFAIRLYSMALLDIFFERENCESBETWEENOCCUPATIONSBUTFAIRLYLARGESENIORITYPREMIAKORZEC,1992THISSITUATIONCHANGED

10、WITHTHEBEGINNINGOFTHEREFORMSIN1978ONEOFTHEFIRSTSTEPSWASTOREINTRODUCEBONUSPAYMENTS,WHICHALLOWEDCOMPENSATIONTOBEBASEDONEFFORTANDINTRODUCEDSOMEWAGEDISPERSIONTHISWASTHOUGHTNECESSARYTOINCREASEEFFORTDURINGTHE1980S,AVARIETYOFMEASURESWEREINTRODUCEDTOINCREASETHEAUTONOMYOFTHEFIRMANDMORESPECIFICALLYOFITSTOPMAN

11、AGERAMONGTHESEWERESOMEAUTONOMYTOSETPRICESDUALPRICINGSYSTEM,ASWELLASTHEQUANTITYANDTHETYPEOF“OUTPUTALSO,FIRMSWEREALLOWEDTORETAINPARTOFTHEIRPROFITSUNDERACONTRACTSYSTEMSOMEOFTHESERETAINEDPROFITSCOULDTHENBEPASSEDONTOWORKERSASBONUSPAYMENTSOTHERMEASURESWEREINTRODUCEDTOIMPROVEWORKERINCENTIVESINSTEADOFTHEPER

12、MANENTEMPLOYMENTRELATIONENJOYEDBYMOSTWORKERS,CONTRACTSWEREINTRODUCEDWHICHCOULD,ATLEASTINTHEORY,BETERMINATED4ISSUESINVESTIGATEDANDTHEAPPROACHADOPTEDBYTHISPAPERINTHECASEOFCHINESESOESINTHE1980S,ANUMBEROFISSUESSEEMTOHAVEBEENOFCENTRALIMPORTANCEFIRST,THEREWASVERJLITTLEWORKERTURNOVER,BOTHVOLUNTARYANDINVOLU

13、NTARYBODMER,002THISMEANSTHATDISMISSALASAMEANSOFWORKERDISCIPLINEWASNOTAVAILABLEORWASNOTUSEDSECOND,THEOCCUPATIONALWAGEPREMIUMREMAINEDSMALLTHEWAGEPREMIUMSHOULDGIVEAGOODINDICATIONOFTHEROLEOFHIERARCHYINMOSTMODELS,THERESPONSIBILITYOFAPOSITIONISCOUPLEDWITHTHEWAGEPAIDTHEREASONISTHATTHEPERFORMANCEOFHIGHERLEV

14、ELSOFTHEHIERARCHYISTRANSMITTEDTOLOWERLEVELS,ASINTHEMODELPROPOSEDBYCALVOANDWELLISZ1979THEREFORE,THEHIGHERLEVELSHAVETOBEPAIDAHIGHERWAGETOMAKESUNTHATTHEYPERFORMTHEIRTASKPROPERLYINTHECHINESECASE,THEMIDDLELEVELSOFTHEHIERARCHYSEEMTOHAVERECEIVEDALOWWAGEPREMIUMWHICH,MOREOVER,DIDNOTINCREASEONLYTHETOPMANAGERC

15、LEARLYSTANDSOUT,WITHANINCREASINGWAGEPREMIUM,ANDITISKNOWNTHATHISRESPONSIBILITYINCREASEDINTHECOURSEOFTHEREFORMSINTHEABSENCEOFASTRONGHIERARCHYANDOFDISMISSALS,SOMEOTHERCONTROLANDINCENTIVEMECHANISMMUSTHAVEBEENUSEDONEOFTHEREFORMMEASURESINTRODUCEDINTHE1980SWASTHESOCALLEDINTERNALSALARYSYSTEMTHISISASYSTEMOFI

16、NTRAFIRMCONTRACTSWHICHFIXESTHERESPONSIBILITIESOFDIFFERENTPARTSOFTHEFIRM,FROMDIFFERENTSECTIONSDOWNTOWORKTEAMSANDWORKERSLEE,1991THESERESPONSIBILITIESWERE,ATLEASTINTHEORY,COUPLEDWITHTHECOMPENSATIONOFTHECORRESPONDINGUNITSHOWEVER,THEPROBLEMOFMONITORINGREMAINSINTHECHINESECASE,ITISPROBABLETHATTHISWASDONEMO

17、STLBYCOWORKERSTHEINTERNALSALARYSYSTEMSHOULDALSOHAVEHELPEDHERE,BYREDUCINGTHESIZEOFTHEUNITOFRESPONSIBILITY,WHICHWOULDHAVEMADEMONITORINGBYCOWORKERSAFEASIBLEPOSSIBILITYTHEDEPENDENCEOFEACHWORKERSWAGEONTHEEFFORTOFEVERYONEELSEINTHETEAMWORKSBETTERWHENTHETEAMISNOTTOOLARGEFURTHER,THEINTERNALSALARYSYSTEMPROBAB

18、LYPROVIDEDASTANDARDIZATIONOFTASKSWHICHMADEMANAGERIALDISCRETIONLESSIMPORTANT,ANDTHEREFOREREDUCEDTHEIMPORTANCEOFHIERARCHYTHESEHYPOTHESESWILLBETESTEDINANUMBEROFWAYSFIRST,THESENSITIVITYOFWAGESTOFIRMPERFORMANCEISINVESTIGATEDTHISSENSITIVITYSHOULDBEHIGHERFORHIGHERLEVELSOFTHEHIERARCHYSINCETHEIRPERFORMANCEWI

19、LLALSODETERMINETHEPERFORMANCEATLOWERLEVELSASINTHEMODELOFCALVOANDWELLISZ,1979FURTHER,INCENTIVESSHOULDBECOMELESSDIRECTTHELONGERTHEHIERARCHYMCAFEE,MCMILLAN,1995THISWOULDALSOIMPLYTHATTHEREMUNERATIONOFWORKERSSHOULDBELESSSENSITIVETOPERFORMANCETHANTHATOFTHETOPMANAGERORTHATOFGENERALMANAGERSSECOND,THEINTERNA

20、LSALARYSYSTEMSPECIFIEDTHERESPONSIBILITIESOFTHEDIFFERENTPARTSOFTHESOE,DOWNTOTEAMSOFWORKERSTHISSHOULDHAVEMADEITPOSSIBLETOMAKEPAYMOREDEPENDENTONPERFORMANCE,SINCETHEREWERENOWOBSERVABLEPERFORMANCETARGETSATTHESAMETIME,ITSHOULDALSOHAVEREDUCEDTHEIMPORTANCEOFMANAGERSBYREDUCINGTHEIRMONITORINGTASKSTHEREFORE,TH

21、EINTERNALSALARYSYSTEMSHOULDHAVETIGHTENEDTHELINKFROMPAYTOPERFORMANCEFORLOWERLEVELSANDLOOSENEDITFORHIGHERLEVELSOFTHEHIERARCHYTHIRD,THEINTERNALSALARYSYSTEMSHOULDHAVETIGHTENEDTHELINKBETWEENPROFITSANDBONUSPAYMENTSAGAIN,ITSHOULDHAVEMADETEAMCOMPENSATIONMOREFEASIBLE,THEREBYALLOWINGATIGHTERLINKBETWEENPROFITS

22、ANDBONUSPAYMENTSFOURTH,ITSHOULDTHEREFOREALSOHAVEINCREASEDTHEPRODUCTIVITYEFFECTSOFTHEBONUSSYSTEMTHESETWOEFFECTSWILLBEINVESTIGATEDINSECTION65THELINKBETWEENPERFORMANCEANDPAYTHEAVERAGEWAGEANDTHEAVERAGEBONUSPEREMPLOYEEARETAKENINORDERTOGIVEANIMPRESSIONOFTHESENSITIVITYOFCOMPENSATIONTOPERFORMANCE,SALESANDRE

23、PORTEDPROFITSARETAKENASPERFORMANCEMEASURESPROFITSWOULDBETHEECONOMICALLYCORRECTPERFORMANCEMEASURESINCETHEBONUSFUNDSHOULDHAVEBEENFILLEDBYTHEPROFITSHOWEVER,ITISREASONABLETOASSUMETHATSALESWOULDBEREJJORTEDWITHLESSERRORTHEREFORE,BOTHPERFORMANCEMEASURESAREUSEDTHEESTIMATESAREOBTAINEDINFIXEDEFFECTSREGRESSION

24、S,WITHTHEINCLUSIONOFYEARDUMMIES,THISAVOIDSSIMPLYOBTAININGAMEASUREOFTHERELATIONOFFIRMSIZETOWAGESTABLE1SHOWSTHERESULTS,ANDITCANBESEENTHATACCORDINGTOBOTHPERFORMANCEMEASURESTHEREWASALINKBETWEENPAYANDPERFORMANCEANDJUSTASWASINTENDED,THISLINKWASSTRONGERFORBONUSPAYMENTSTHANFOROVERALLWAGTPAYMENTSWHICHCONTRAD

25、ICTSTHEVIEWTHATBONUSPAYMENTSWERETREATEDJUSTLIKEOTHERWAGEPAYMENTSITCANALSOBESEENTHATTHERELATIONWASWEAKERFORPROFITSTHISCOULDBEDUETOTHEPROBLEMSOFPROFITMEASUREMENTMENTIONEDABOVE6，THEEVIDENCEFOREFFICIENCYEFFECTSANDTHEEFFECTIVENESSOFTHEBONUSSYSTEMTHEINTRODUCTIONOFTHEBONUSSYSTEMWASACENTRALASPECTOFCHINESESO

26、EREFORMS,ASALREADYDISCUSSEDITWASTHEMEANSTOMAKINGPAYMENTSDEPENDENTONPERFORMANCE,THEREBYENHANCINGEFFORTANDPRODUCTIVITYINTHEORY,BONUSPAYMENTSSHOULDHAVEBEENMADEFROMANSOEFUNDTOWHICHMOSTLYPROFITSCONTRIBUTEDTHELINKBETWEENBONUSPAYMENTSANDPROFITSWASTHEREFOREANIMPORTANTASPECTOFTHISREFORMTHECAUSATIONISTWOWAYHE

27、RE,OFCOURSEONTHEONEHAND,HIGHERPROFITSSHOULDLEADTOHIGHERBONUSPAYMENTSONTHEOTHERHAND,ACLOSERLINKBETWEENPAYANDPERFORMANCEOR,INOTHERWORDS,AHIGHERSHAREOFBONUSESINTOTALWAGEPAYMENTSSHOULDIMPROVEINCENTIVESANDTHEREBYWORKEREFFORTANDFIRMPERFORMANCEFORTHISSECONDEFFECTTOWORK,THERESHOULDBEASUFFICIENTLYCLOSELINKBE

28、TWEENPAYANDEFFORTASDISCUSSED,THISISSUBJECTTOTHEFREERIDERPROBLEMTYPICALOFTEAMCOMPENISATIONONEHYPOTHESISOFTHEPRESENTPAPERISTHATTHEINTERNALSALARYSYSTEMHASCONTRIBUTEDTOOVERCOMINGTHESEFREERIDERPROBLEMSFORTHISTOBETRUE,ONECONDITIONISTHATTHELINKBETWEENPROFITSANDBONUSESISCLOSERUNDERTHEINTERNALSALARYSYSTEMTHI

29、SISINVESTIGATEDBELOWTHEINCENTIVEEFFECTSOFTHEBONUSSYSTEMAREALSOINVESIIGATEDBELOWBYMEANSOFPRODUCTIONFUNCTIONESTIMATESGROVESETAL1994,YAO1997,ANDZHUANGANDXU1996ALLFOUNDASTRONGLYPOSITIVEEFFECTANISSUEINTHESEPAPERSISTHETWOWAYRELATIONSHIPBETWEENBONUSPAYMENTSANDPRODUCTIVITYBONUSPAYMENTSSHOULDENHANCEPRODUCTIV

30、ITYBYMOTIVATINGWORKERSTHISISTHEEFFECTINQUESTIONHOWEVER,SINCEBONUSPAYMENTSDEPENDONFIRMPERFORMANCE,THEREISALSOAREVERSEEFFECTGROVESETAL1994ANDZHUANGANDXU196HAVEUSEDINSTRUMENTALVARIABLESTECHNIQUESTOACCOUNTFORTHIS,WHILEYAO1997HASESTIMATEDAFULLSTRUCTURALMODELALLOWINGFORTHETWOWAYCAUSATIONHOWEVER,USINGINSTR

31、UMENTSHASNOTCHANGEDTHEBASICCONCLUSIONINTHESEPAPERSINSOMECASES,ITEVENTENDEDTOINCREASETHECOEFFICIENTOFBONUSPAYMENTSINTHEPRESENTPAPER,NOATTEMPTISMADETODISENTANGLETHETWOEFFECTSMOREMODESTLY,ITISINVESTIGATEDWHETHERTHEINTERNALSALARYSYSTEMTIGHTENEDTHELINKBETWEENFIRMPRODUCTIVITYANDBONUSPAYMENTS。AFIRSTCONDITI

32、ONFORTHEEFFECTIVENESSOFTHEBONUSSYSTEMISTHATBONUSESAREPAIDMAINLYOUTOFPROFITSWESHOULDTHEREFOREOBSERVEACLOSELINKBETWEENPROFITSANDBONUSPAYMENTSALSO,THEINTERNALSALARYSYSTEMSHOULDHAVETIGHTENEDTHISLINKSINCEITPROVIDEDAWAYTOASCERTAINWHETHERTARGETSWEREMET。THISMADETHEWHOLESYSTEMMORETRANSPARENT,GIVINGMANAGEMENT

33、MOREINFORMATIONONWORKERSPERFORMANCE,REDUCINGMONITORINGNEEDSANDALSOREDUCINGTHEPOSSIBILITIESFORMANAGEMENTNOTTOPAYABONUSEVENWHENITWASJUSTIFIEDTOCHECKTHELINKBETWEENPROFITSANDBONUSPAYMENTS,FIXEDEFFECTSREGRESSIONSINCLUDINGYEARDUMMIESAREUSEDAGAINFIRST,THESHAREOFBONUSPAYMENTSISREGRESSEDONADUMMYFORTHEFIRMHAV

34、INGADOPTEDTHEINTERNALSALARYSYSTEMTHEFIRSTCOLUMNOFTABLE4SHOWSTHATFIRMSWITHANINTERNALSALARYSYSTEMDIDNOTRELYMOREONBONUSPAYMENTSTHANDIDOTHERFIRMS7CONCLUSIONSTHEAIMOFTHISPAPERWASTODEEPENOURUNDERSTANDINGOFTHEUSEOFINCENTIVEPAYINCHINESESOESITWASFOUNDTHATTHEREWASSIGNIFICANTSENSITIVITYOFWAGESTOFIRMPERFORMANCE

35、ANDTHISSENSITIVITYVARIEDPOSITIVELYWITHTHEHIERARCHICALPOSITIONOFANEMPLOYEE,JUSTASWOULDBEPREDICTEDBYTHEORIESOFHIERARCHYALSO,THEINTERNALSALARYSYSTEMSTRENGTHENEDTHISSENSITIVITYFORWORKERSANDLESSENEDITFORMANAGERSITSHOULDTHEREFOREHAVEHELPEDTOOVERCOMETHETEAMPROBLEMSINHERENTINBONUSPAYMENTSTHISVIEWISFURTHERSU

36、PPORTEDBYTHEFINDINGTHATTHEINTERNALSALARYSYSTEMTIGHTENEDTHELINKBETWEENPROFITSANDBONUSPAYMENTSITWASALSOFOUNDTOHAVEHADAPOSITIVEEFFECTONPRODUCTIVITYTHECONCLUSIONISTHEREFORETHATBELOWTHESURFACEOFAFAIRLYRIGIDWAGESYSTEMMUCHCANBEFOUNDWHICHFOLLOWSMODERNTHEORIESOFINCENTIVEPAYTHISMEANSTHATTHEVARIATIONOFPAYWITHP

37、ERFORMANCEINCREASED,WHILEPAYREMAINEDFAIRLYINSENSITIVETOTRADITIONALMEASURESOFSKILLSUCHASEDUCATIONANDOCCUPATIONITISVERYPROBABLETHATSUCHACHANGECAUSEDMUCHLESSRESISTANCEONTHEPARTOFWORKERSTHANTHEOUTRIGHTINCREASEOFWAGEDIFFERENTIALSORANINCREASEDROLEFORHIERARCHY,ANDTHATITWASTHEREFOREEASIERTOIMPLEMENTINANENVI

38、RONMENTWITHSTRONGWORKERPARTICIPATION资料来源REVIEWOFLABOURECONOMICS但这违背了一个观点，支付的奖金与其他工资支付一样对待。它也可以看出，利润的关系是微弱。这可能是由于上面提到的利润的计量问题。6该系统引进的奖金是国有企业改革的中心环节，正如前面已经讨论的。这是支付手段，它依赖于绩效，从而提高工作和生产效率。从理论上讲，奖金应该是从国有企业的基金而来，它主要的利润贡献。实现利润之间的联系，因此，奖金支付是这次改革的一个重要方面。因果关系是双向的，从另一方面来说，就是较高的利润应导致更高的奖金支出。换句话说，较高的奖金份额工资总额支付，完善

39、激励机制，从而使工作者的努力和坚定的表现。对于这第二个影响工作得因素，应该使付出和努力之间的联系更加密切。如前所述，这是受典型的团队中搭便车的问题影响。目前有一种假说，内部薪酬体系有助于克服这些搭便车的问题。要使这成为真的，一个条件是，奖金利润之间的联系应更紧密，这是制度下的内部工资。奖金制度的激励作用也低于估计生产资料的功能。格罗夫斯等人（1994年），姚（1997年），壮和徐（1996）都发现了一个强阳性功能。在这些问题是奖金和生产力的双向关系。奖金应加强工人的生产率的激励。这就是问题的效应。然而，由于奖金付款服务依赖于企业，也有反向作用，格罗夫斯等人（1994年）和壮和徐（1996）中使

40、用的变量技术工具考虑到这一点，而姚（1997）估计一个完整的因果关系的结构模型允许双向。但是，使用仪器并没有改变这些文件的基本结论。在某些情况下，它甚至有增加支付奖金系数的趋势。在本文中，没有试图解开这两个效果。较温和的，我们调查是否内部工资支付制度收紧了企业生产率之间的联系和奖金。奖金制度有效性的首要条件是，奖金支付主要是出于利润。因此，我们应该看到一个发放奖金和利润之间的密切联系。此外，内部薪酬制度应该加强这种联系，因为它提供了一种方法来确定是否指标均达到。这使整个系统更加透明，让更多的绩效信息来管理工人，降低监控需求，也减少的可能性是合理的管理，即使支付奖金。要检查支付利润与奖金之间的联

41、系，固定效应回归再次使用。首先，奖金的支付份额是假设一个虚拟公司已采用内部工资制度。结论本文的目的本是为了加深了解在中国国有企业中运用的薪酬激励机制。它表明，公司的绩效对敏感性工资有很重大影响。而且这种敏感性随着雇员的层级位置而改变，正如层级理论的预言一样。此外，这种内部工资制度对员工加强了这种敏感度，却减少对管理者的程度。因此，它应有助于克服团队内部的奖励问题。这种观点进一步被支持通过一个现象。这种现象是员工薪酬制度将利润与员工奖金更加紧密的联系在一起。同时还发现，它对生产率产生积极影响。因此，结论是一个相当严格的工资制度的表面以下，可以发现其中很多是遵循现代薪酬激励理论的。这意味着工资支付随着绩效的增加而改变，但工资仍作为传统措施还是相当不敏感，比如在教育和职业领域。这是非常可能的，这种改变对于一部分员工产生更少的阻力与增加工资差距相比，从而使一个层级发挥更大的作用。因此，它更容易实施在更多的工人参与的环境中。资料来源劳动经济学和工业关系2003（6）299314