THE SOURCES OF INNOVATION 【外文原文】.doc

1、外文翻译原文THESOURCESOFINNOVATIONMATERIALSOURCEUNIVERSITYOFCALIFORNIAAUTHORERICVONHIPPEL1OVERVIEWITHASLONGBEENASSUMEDTHATPRODUCTINNOVATIONSARETYPICALLYDEVELOPEDBYPRODUCTMANUFACTURERSBECAUSETHISASSUMPTIONDEALSWITHTHEBASICMATTEROFWHOTHEINNOVATORIS,ITHASINEVITABLYHADAMAJORIMPACTONINNOVATIONRELATEDRESEARCH,O

2、NFIRMSMANAGEMENTOFRESEARCHANDDEVELOPMENT,ANDONGOVERNMENTINNOVATIONPOLICYHOWEVER,ITNOWAPPEARSTHATTHISBASICASSUMPTIONISOFTENWRONGINTHISBOOKIBEGINBYPRESENTINGASERIESOFSTUDIESSHOWINGTHATTHESOURCESOFINNOVATIONVARYGREATLYINSOMEFIELDS,INNOVATIONUSERSDEVELOPMOSTINNOVATIONSINOTHERS,SUPPLIERSOFINNOVATIONRELAT

3、EDCOMPONENTSANDMATERIALSARETHETYPICALSOURCESOFINNOVATIONINSTILLOTHERFIELDS,CONVENTIONALWISDOMHOLDSANDPRODUCTMANUFACTURERSAREINDEEDTHETYPICALINNOVATORSNEXT,IEXPLOREWHYTHISVARIATIONINTHEFUNCTIONALSOURCESOFINNOVATIONOCCURSANDHOWITMIGHTBEPREDICTEDFINALLY,IPROPOSEANDTESTSOMEIMPLICATIONSOFREPLACINGAMANUFA

4、CTURERASINNOVATORASSUMPTIONWITHAVIEWOFTHEINNOVATIONPROCESSASPREDICTABLYDISTRIBUTEDACROSSUSERS,MANUFACTURERS，SUPPLIERS,ANDOTHERS2VARIATIONSINTHEFUNCTIONALSOURCEOFINNOVATIONWEHAVESEENTHATUSERSSOMETIMESINNOVATEBUTDOTHEYALWAYSORDOESTHEFUNCTIONALSOURCEOFINNOVATIONVARYINSOMEMANNERBETWEENUSERS,MANUFACTURER

5、S,SUPPLIERS,ANDOTHERSTOBEABLETOANSWERTHESEQUESTIONS,WEMUSTHAVEDATAONTHESOURCESOFINNOVATIONCHARACTERISTICOFATLEASTAFEWMORETYPESOFINNOVATIONTHEREFORE,MYSTUDENTSANDIUNDERTOOKTHESIXBRIEFSTUDIESIWILLDESCRIBEINTHISCHAPTEREACHOFTHESIXSTUDIESEXAMINESADIFFERENTTYPEOFINNOVATIONTHEFIRSTFOURIWILLREVIEWCONSIDERI

6、NNOVATIONCATEGORIESCHOSENTOMATCHMYOWNAREASOFTECHNICALKNOWLEDGEANDTHOSEOFTHEGRADUATESTUDENTSPARTICIPATINGINOURPROJECTTHECHOICEOFTOPICSFORTHELASTTWOSTUDIESIWILLREVIEWWASMADEONADIFFERENTBASIS,WHICHIWILLSPELLOUTWHENDISCUSSINGTHEMEACHSTUDYUSESIDENTICALMETHODS,SOTHATTHEIRRESULTSARECOMMENSURABLE,4ANDEACHIS

7、TIGHTLYFOCUSEDONASINGLEISSUEWHATARETHESOURCESOFINNOVATIONTHESESTUDIESFINDTHATTHEFUNCTIONALSOURCEOFINNOVATIONDIFFERSSTRIKINGLYACROSSTHESEVERALTYPESOFPRODUCTANDPROCESSINNOVATIONIHAVEEXPLOREDMANUFACTURERSASINNOVATORSTHETRACTORSHOVELTHETRACTORSHOVELISAVERYUSEFULMACHINEOFTENUSEDINTHECONSTRUCTIONINDUSTRYI

8、NITIALCONVERSATIONSWITHEXPERTSINCONSTRUCTIONLEDUSTOSUSPECTTHATUSERSWOULDINFACTBEINNOVATORSINTRACTORSHOVELSEVERYONEHADASTORYTOTELLABOUTACONSTRUCTIONFIRMTHAT,FACINGANUNUSUALCHALLENGEANDATIGHTDEADLINE,PERFORMEDANOVERNIGHTMODIFICATIONTOSOMEITEMOFCONSTRUCTIONEQUIPMENTTHATSOLVEDTHEPROBLEMANDSAVEDTHEDAYINF

9、ACT,HOWEVER,TRACTORSHOVELMANUFACTURERSTURNEDOUTTOBETHEDOMINANTSOURCEOFCOMMERDALLYSUCCESSFULTRACTORSHOVELINNOVATIONSTHETRACTORSHOVELCANBEVISUALIZEDASAFOURWHEELED,RUBBERTIREDMACHINEWITHALARGE,MOVABLESCOOPMOUNTEDATTHEFRONTENDITISNORMALLYUSEDFOREXCAVATIONANDOTHERCONSTRUCTIONTASKSASWELLASFORTHEGENERALHAN

10、DLINGOFBULKMATERIALS,RANGINGFROMCOALTOCHEMICALSTOSOYBEANSHOUSEHOLDERSWHOLIVEINSTATESWITHSEVEREWINTERSMAYHAVEACLEARVISUALIMAGEOFTRACTORSHOVELSTHEYARETYPICALLYTHEMACHINESTHATDIGOUTROADSAFTERORDINARYTRUCKSHAVEBEENHALTEDBYDEEPSNOWTRACTORSHOVELSAREBUILTINMANYSIZESTODAY,ONECANFINDLARGETRACTORSHOVELSWITHMA

11、SSIVE,20CUYDSCOOPSWORKINGINOPENPITMINESLOADINGOREINTOTRUCKSONECANALSOFINDSMALLTRACTORSHOVELSWORKINGINWAREHOUSESSHIFTINGVARIOUSMATERIALSFROMPLACETOPLACE1CUYDATATIMEAPPROXIMATELY41,000TRACTORSHOVELSOFALLSIZESWEREMANUFACTUREDINTHEUNITEDSTATESIN1980,WITHANAGGREGATEVALUEOF15BILLIONDOLLARS5THESAMPLETHEBAS

12、ICTRACTORSHOVELWASDEVELOPEDIN1939THESAMPLECONSISTSOFTHATBASICINNOVATIONPLUSALLSIGNIFICANTIMPROVEMENTSTOTHETRACTORSHOVELCOMMERCIALIZEDPRIORTO19704THEMAJORIMPROVEMENTSCATEGORYINTABLE33CONSISTSOFINNOVATIONSTHATAREINSTALLEDINVIRTUALLYALLTRACTORSHOVELSANDTHATAREOFVALUETOESSENTIALLYALLUSERSFOREXAMPLE,ARTI

13、CULATION,ANINNOVATIONTHATHINGESTHETRACTORSHOVELINTHEMIDDLEANDGREATLYIMPROVESSTEERINGANDTRACTION,ISVALUABLETOESSENTIALLYALLUSERSANDISNOWINCORPORATEDINALMOSTALLTRACTORSHOVELSINCONTRAST,THESPECIALPURPOSEACCESSORIESLISTEDAREINNOVATIONSTHATAREONLYOFVALUEINSOMESPECIALIZEDTASKSTHUS,THELENGTHENEDBOOMARMSARE

14、USEDPRIMARILYBYTHOSEWHOLOADHIGHSIDEDTRUCKS,WHEREASTHELOGGRAPPLESAREPRIMARILYUSEDBYLUMBERCOMPANIESINTHEIRLOGGINGOPERATIONSOFCOURSE,MANYOTHERSPECIALPURPOSEACCESSORIESEXIST,RANGINGFROMASPHALTPAYERSTOSNOWBLOWERSTHEFIVECHOSENFORSTUDYSERVERELATIVELYLARGEUSERGROUPSFINDINGTHESOURCESOFTRACTORSHOVELINNOVATION

15、ASCANCLEARLYBESEENINTABLE34,ALMOSTALLOFTHEINNOVATIONSSTUDIEDWEREDEVELOPEDBYTRACTORSHOVELMANUFACTURERSINTWOINSTANCESTHESEINNOVATINGMANUFACTURERSWEREWHATISKNOWNINTHETRADEASALLIEDMANUFACTURERSORALLIEDVENDORSTHESEAREFIRMSTHATMAKEASPECIALTYOFMANUFACTURINGATTACHMENTSFORTRACTORSHOVELSANDSIMILARMACHINESSOME

16、TIMESTHEYARESIMPLYEQUIPMENTDEALERSWHORUNASMALLMANUFACTURINGOPERATIONONTHESIDETRACTORSHOVELMANUFACTURERSWILLOFTENCOOPERATEWITHSUCHFIRMSBECAUSETHEACCESSORIESTHEYBUILDENHANCETHEUTILITYOFTHEBASICTRACTORSHOVELBYTAILORINGITTOVARIOUSSPECIALIZEDUSERSONLYONEINNOVATIONSTUDIEDWASCOMPLETELYDEVELOPEDBYAUSERTHEAT

17、TACHMENTCOUPLERSYSTEM,WHICHWASDEVELOPEDBYAFARMERFORUSEONHISFARMBUT6USERSDIDSOMEINNOVATIONWORKRELATEDTOSOMEOFTHEOTHERSPECIALATTACHMENTSSTUDIEDSEETHEAPPENDIXFOREXAMPLE,BEFORESTEELSHODTIRESWEREDEVELOPEDBYAMANUFACTURERTHEYAREUSEDTOPROTECTTRACTORSHOVELTIRESFROMCUTS，SOMETRACTORSHOVELUSERSWEREPROTECTINGTHE

18、TIRESOFTHEIRMACHINESBYWRAPPINGTHEMWITHHEAVYSTEELCHAINSMANUFACTURERSASINNOVATORSENGINEERINGTHERMOPLASTICSENGINEERINGPLASTICSARETRIUMPHSOFORGANICCHEMISTRYANDMOSTWERECREATEDAFTERWORLDWARIITHETERMENGINEERINGPLASTICSIMPLYMEANSAPLASTICTHATCANBEUSEDINDEMANDINGENGINEERINGAPPLICATIONSEXAMPLESOFSUCHAPPLICADON

19、SAREPARTSPLACEDUNDERMECHANICALSTRESSORMECHANICALSHOCKEG，GEARSORMALLETHEADSORPARTSPLACEDINDEMANDINGTEMPERATURESAND/ORCHEMICALENVIRONMENTSEG，PARTSUSEDINAUTOMOBILEENGINESPRIORTOTHEADVENTOFENGINEERINGPLASTICS,SUCHPARTSCOULDONLYHAVEBEENMADEOFAMATERIALLIKEMETALORGLASSNOWTHEYCANOFTENBEMADEBETTERANDMORECHEA

20、PLYFROMPLASTICALLENGINEERINGPLASTICSAREPRODUCEDINLOWVOLUMEBUTWITHARELATIVELYHIGHSELLINGPRICEWHENJUDGEDAGAINSTSUCHBULKPLASTICSASPOLYETHYLENEIN1976ENGINEERINGPLASTICSCOUNTEDFORABOUT2BYBUTACCOUNTEDFORABOUT6OFTHETOTALVALUEVOLUMEOFALLPLASTICSPRODUCEDOFALLPLASTICSPRODUCEDSTHESAMPLETHESAMPLEOFENGINEERINGPL

21、ASTICSINNOVATIONSCONSISTSOFALLCOMMERCIALLYSUCCESSFULENGINEERINGTHERMOPLASTICMONOMERSINTRODUCEDTOTHEMARKETAFTER1955THATACHIEVEDSALESOFATLEAST10MILLIONLBSANNUALLYBY1975THISDEFINITIONOFCOMMERCIALSUCCESSWASSUGGESTEDBYPLASTICSMANUFACTURERINTERVIEWEESTHEFIVEENGINEERINGTHERMOPLASTICSINNOVATIONSTHATMETTHESE

22、SAMPLESELECTIONCRITERIAAREIDENTIFIEDINTABLE35FINDINGSTHESOURCESOFENGINEERINGTHERMOPLASTICSINNOVATIONASCANBESEENINTABLE36,“FOURANDONEHALF“OFTHEFIVEENGINEERING7PLASTICSINTHESAMPLEWEREDEVELOPEDBYPLASTICSMANUFACTURERSTHUS,THISVERYSMALLSAMPLESHOWSASTRONGMANUFACTURERASINNOVATORPATTERNTHEINNOVATIONCODEDAS5

23、0USERDEVELOPEDAND50MANUFACTURERDEVELOPEDWASPOLYCARBONATERESINLEXAN，WHICHWASDEVELOPEDBYGENERALELECTRICIN1960GEISBOTHAMAJORPRODUCERANDAMAJORUSEROFPOLYCARBONATEINTHEPERIODIMMEDIATELYFOLLOWINGCOMMERCIALIZATIONWHENPRODUCTIONCAPACITYWASLOWRELATIVETOTHATOFTODAY,GEPERSONNELESTIMATETHATASMUCHAS50OFGEPOLYCARB

24、ONATEPRODUCTIONWASCONSUMEDINTERNALLYCURRENTLY,GECONSUMESONLYASMALLPERCENTAGEOFANNUALPOLYCARBONATEPRODUCTIONSEETHEAPPENDIXFORFURTHERDETAILSHAPPILY,CASESSUCHASGE,WHEREASINGLEFIRMHOLDSMORETHANONEFUNCTIONALROLEWITHRESPECTTOANINNOVATION,AREVERYRAREINOURSAMPLESWHENDUALORMULTIPLEROLESAREHELDBYTHESAMEINNOVATINGFIRMORINDIVIDUAL,SEVERECODINGPROBLEMSEMERGEOFTEN,ONECANNOTDETERMINEWHICHROLETHEINNOVATORWAS“REALLY“MOTIVATEDBYDURINGTHEDEVELOPMENTWORK