1、毕业论文外文翻译外文题目THESOURCESOFINNOVATION出处UNIVERSITYOFCALIFORNIA作者ERICVONHIPPEL1OVERVIEWITHASLONGBEENASSUMEDTHATPRODUCTINNOVATIONSARETYPICALLYDEVELOPEDBYPRODUCTMANUFACTURERSBECAUSETHISASSUMPTIONDEALSWITHTHEBASICMATTEROFWHOTHEINNOVATORIS,ITHASINEVITABLYHADAMAJORIMPACTONINNOVATIONRELATEDRESEARCH,ONFIRMSMANA
2、GEMENTOFRESEARCHANDDEVELOPMENT,ANDONGOVERNMENTINNOVATIONPOLICYHOWEVER,ITNOWAPPEARSTHATTHISBASICASSUMPTIONISOFTENWRONGINTHISBOOKIBEGINBYPRESENTINGASERIESOFSTUDIESSHOWINGTHATTHESOURCESOFINNOVATIONVARYGREATLYINSOMEFIELDS,INNOVATIONUSERSDEVELOPMOSTINNOVATIONSINOTHERS,SUPPLIERSOFINNOVATIONRELATEDCOMPONEN
3、TSANDMATERIALSARETHETYPICALSOURCESOFINNOVATIONINSTILLOTHERFIELDS,CONVENTIONALWISDOMHOLDSANDPRODUCTMANUFACTURERSAREINDEEDTHETYPICALINNOVATORSNEXT,IEXPLOREWHYTHISVARIATIONINTHEFUNCTIONALSOURCESOFINNOVATIONOCCURSANDHOWITMIGHTBEPREDICTEDFINALLY,IPROPOSEANDTESTSOMEIMPLICATIONSOFREPLACINGAMANUFACTURERASIN
4、NOVATORASSUMPTIONWITHAVIEWOFTHEINNOVATIONPROCESSASPREDICTABLYDISTRIBUTEDACROSSUSERS,MANUFACTURERS,SUPPLIERS,ANDOTHERS2VARIATIONSINTHEFUNCTIONALSOURCEOFINNOVATIONWEHAVESEENTHATUSERSSOMETIMESINNOVATEBUTDOTHEYALWAYSORDOESTHEFUNCTIONALSOURCEOFINNOVATIONVARYINSOMEMANNERBETWEENUSERS,MANUFACTURERS,SUPPLIER
5、S,ANDOTHERSTOBEABLETOANSWERTHESEQUESTIONS,WEMUSTHAVEDATAONTHESOURCESOFINNOVATIONCHARACTERISTICOFATLEASTAFEWMORETYPESOFINNOVATIONTHEREFORE,MYSTUDENTSANDIUNDERTOOKTHESIXBRIEFSTUDIESIWILLDESCRIBEINTHISCHAPTEREACHOFTHESIXSTUDIESEXAMINESADIFFERENTTYPEOFINNOVATIONTHEFIRSTFOURIWILLREVIEWCONSIDERINNOVATIONC
6、ATEGORIESCHOSENTOMATCHMYOWNAREASOFTECHNICALKNOWLEDGEANDTHOSEOFTHEGRADUATESTUDENTSPARTICIPATINGINOURPROJECTTHECHOICEOFTOPICSFORTHELASTTWOSTUDIESIWILLREVIEWWASMADEONADIFFERENTBASIS,WHICHIWILLSPELLOUTWHENDISCUSSINGTHEMEACHSTUDYUSESIDENTICALMETHODS,SOTHATTHEIRRESULTSARECOMMENSURABLE,ANDEACHISTIGHTLYFOCU
7、SEDONASINGLEISSUEWHATARETHESOURCESOFINNOVATIONTHESESTUDIESFINDTHATTHEFUNCTIONALSOURCEOFINNOVATIONDIFFERSSTRIKINGLYACROSSTHESEVERALTYPESOFPRODUCTANDPROCESSINNOVATIONIHAVEEXPLOREDMANUFACTURERSASINNOVATORSTHETRACTORSHOVELTHETRACTORSHOVELISAVERYUSEFULMACHINEOFTENUSEDINTHECONSTRUCTIONINDUSTRYINITIALCONVE
8、RSATIONSWITHEXPERTSINCONSTRUCTIONLEDUSTOSUSPECTTHATUSERSWOULDINFACTBEINNOVATORSINTRACTORSHOVELSEVERYONEHADASTORYTOTELLABOUTACONSTRUCTIONFIRMTHAT,FACINGANUNUSUALCHALLENGEANDATIGHTDEADLINE,PERFORMEDANOVERNIGHTMODIFICATIONTOSOMEITEMOFCONSTRUCTIONEQUIPMENTTHATSOLVEDTHEPROBLEMANDSAVEDTHEDAYINFACT,HOWEVER
9、,TRACTORSHOVELMANUFACTURERSTURNEDOUTTOBETHEDOMINANTSOURCEOFCOMMERDALLYSUCCESSFULTRACTORSHOVELINNOVATIONSTHETRACTORSHOVELCANBEVISUALIZEDASAFOURWHEELED,RUBBERTIREDMACHINEWITHALARGE,MOVABLESCOOPMOUNTEDATTHEFRONTENDITISNORMALLYUSEDFOREXCAVATIONANDOTHERCONSTRUCTIONTASKSASWELLASFORTHEGENERALHANDLINGOFBULK
10、MATERIALS,RANGINGFROMCOALTOCHEMICALSTOSOYBEANSHOUSEHOLDERSWHOLIVEINSTATESWITHSEVEREWINTERSMAYHAVEACLEARVISUALIMAGEOFTRACTORSHOVELSTHEYARETYPICALLYTHEMACHINESTHATDIGOUTROADSAFTERORDINARYTRUCKSHAVEBEENHALTEDBYDEEPSNOWTRACTORSHOVELSAREBUILTINMANYSIZESTODAY,ONECANFINDLARGETRACTORSHOVELSWITHMASSIVE,20CUY
11、DSCOOPSWORKINGINOPENPITMINESLOADINGOREINTOTRUCKSONECANALSOFINDSMALLTRACTORSHOVELSWORKINGINWAREHOUSESSHIFTINGVARIOUSMATERIALSFROMPLACETOPLACE1CUYDATATIMEAPPROXIMATELY41,000TRACTORSHOVELSOFALLSIZESWEREMANUFACTUREDINTHEUNITEDSTATESIN1980,WITHANAGGREGATEVALUEOF15BILLIONDOLLARSTHESAMPLETHEBASICTRACTORSHO
12、VELWASDEVELOPEDIN1939THESAMPLECONSISTSOFTHATBASICINNOVATIONPLUSALLSIGNIFICANTIMPROVEMENTSTOTHETRACTORSHOVELCOMMERCIALIZEDPRIORTO19704THEMAJORIMPROVEMENTSCATEGORYINTABLE33CONSISTSOFINNOVATIONSTHATAREINSTALLEDINVIRTUALLYALLTRACTORSHOVELSANDTHATAREOFVALUETOESSENTIALLYALLUSERSFOREXAMPLE,ARTICULATION,ANI
13、NNOVATIONTHATHINGESTHETRACTORSHOVELINTHEMIDDLEANDGREATLYIMPROVESSTEERINGANDTRACTION,ISVALUABLETOESSENTIALLYALLUSERSANDISNOWINCORPORATEDINALMOSTALLTRACTORSHOVELSINCONTRAST,THESPECIALPURPOSEACCESSORIESLISTEDAREINNOVATIONSTHATAREONLYOFVALUEINSOMESPECIALIZEDTASKSTHUS,THELENGTHENEDBOOMARMSAREUSEDPRIMARIL
14、YBYTHOSEWHOLOADHIGHSIDEDTRUCKS,WHEREASTHELOGGRAPPLESAREPRIMARILYUSEDBYLUMBERCOMPANIESINTHEIRLOGGINGOPERATIONSOFCOURSE,MANYOTHERSPECIALPURPOSEACCESSORIESEXIST,RANGINGFROMASPHALTPAYERSTOSNOWBLOWERSTHEFIVECHOSENFORSTUDYSERVERELATIVELYLARGEUSERGROUPSFINDINGTHESOURCESOFTRACTORSHOVELINNOVATIONASCANCLEARLY
15、BESEENINTABLE34,ALMOSTALLOFTHEINNOVATIONSSTUDIEDWEREDEVELOPEDBYTRACTORSHOVELMANUFACTURERSINTWOINSTANCESTHESEINNOVATINGMANUFACTURERSWEREWHATISKNOWNINTHETRADEASALLIEDMANUFACTURERSORALLIEDVENDORSTHESEAREFIRMSTHATMAKEASPECIALTYOFMANUFACTURINGATTACHMENTSFORTRACTORSHOVELSANDSIMILARMACHINESSOMETIMESTHEYARE
16、SIMPLYEQUIPMENTDEALERSWHORUNASMALLMANUFACTURINGOPERATIONONTHESIDETRACTORSHOVELMANUFACTURERSWILLOFTENCOOPERATEWITHSUCHFIRMSBECAUSETHEACCESSORIESTHEYBUILDENHANCETHEUTILITYOFTHEBASICTRACTORSHOVELBYTAILORINGITTOVARIOUSSPECIALIZEDUSERSONLYONEINNOVATIONSTUDIEDWASCOMPLETELYDEVELOPEDBYAUSERTHEATTACHMENTCOUP
17、LERSYSTEM,WHICHWASDEVELOPEDBYAFARMERFORUSEONHISFARMBUTUSERSDIDSOMEINNOVATIONWORKRELATEDTOSOMEOFTHEOTHERSPECIALATTACHMENTSSTUDIEDSEETHEAPPENDIXFOREXAMPLE,BEFORESTEELSHODTIRESWEREDEVELOPEDBYAMANUFACTURERTHEYAREUSEDTOPROTECTTRACTORSHOVELTIRESFROMCUTS,SOMETRACTORSHOVELUSERSWEREPROTECTINGTHETIRESOFTHEIRM
18、ACHINESBYWRAPPINGTHEMWITHHEAVYSTEELCHAINSMANUFACTURERSASINNOVATORSENGINEERINGTHERMOPLASTICSENGINEERINGPLASTICSARETRIUMPHSOFORGANICCHEMISTRYANDMOSTWERECREATEDAFTERWORLDWARIITHETERMENGINEERINGPLASTICSIMPLYMEANSAPLASTICTHATCANBEUSEDINDEMANDINGENGINEERINGAPPLICATIONSEXAMPLESOFSUCHAPPLICADONSAREPARTSPLAC
19、EDUNDERMECHANICALSTRESSORMECHANICALSHOCKEG,GEARSORMALLETHEADSORPARTSPLACEDINDEMANDINGTEMPERATURESAND/ORCHEMICALENVIRONMENTSEG,PARTSUSEDINAUTOMOBILEENGINESPRIORTOTHEADVENTOFENGINEERINGPLASTICS,SUCHPARTSCOULDONLYHAVEBEENMADEOFAMATERIALLIKEMETALORGLASSNOWTHEYCANOFTENBEMADEBETTERANDMORECHEAPLYFROMPLASTI
20、CALLENGINEERINGPLASTICSAREPRODUCEDINLOWVOLUMEBUTWITHARELATIVELYHIGHSELLINGPRICEWHENJUDGEDAGAINSTSUCHBULKPLASTICSASPOLYETHYLENEIN1976ENGINEERINGPLASTICSCOUNTEDFORABOUT2BYBUTACCOUNTEDFORABOUT6OFTHETOTALVALUEVOLUMEOFALLPLASTICSPRODUCEDOFALLPLASTICSPRODUCEDSTHESAMPLETHESAMPLEOFENGINEERINGPLASTICSINNOVAT
21、IONSCONSISTSOFALLCOMMERCIALLYSUCCESSFULENGINEERINGTHERMOPLASTICMONOMERSINTRODUCEDTOTHEMARKETAFTER1955THATACHIEVEDSALESOFATLEAST10MILLIONLBSANNUALLYBY1975THISDEFINITIONOFCOMMERCIALSUCCESSWASSUGGESTEDBYPLASTICSMANUFACTURERINTERVIEWEESTHEFIVEENGINEERINGTHERMOPLASTICSINNOVATIONSTHATMETTHESESAMPLESELECTI
22、ONCRITERIAAREIDENTIFIEDINTABLE35FINDINGSTHESOURCESOFENGINEERINGTHERMOPLASTICSINNOVATIONASCANBESEENINTABLE36,“FOURANDONEHALF“OFTHEFIVEENGINEERINGPLASTICSINTHESAMPLEWEREDEVELOPEDBYPLASTICSMANUFACTURERSTHUS,THISVERYSMALLSAMPLESHOWSASTRONGMANUFACTURERASINNOVATORPATTERNTHEINNOVATIONCODEDAS50USERDEVELOPED
23、AND50MANUFACTURERDEVELOPEDWASPOLYCARBONATERESINLEXAN,WHICHWASDEVELOPEDBYGENERALELECTRICIN1960GEISBOTHAMAJORPRODUCERANDAMAJORUSEROFPOLYCARBONATEINTHEPERIODIMMEDIATELYFOLLOWINGCOMMERCIALIZATIONWHENPRODUCTIONCAPACITYWASLOWRELATIVETOTHATOFTODAY,GEPERSONNELESTIMATETHATASMUCHAS50OFGEPOLYCARBONATEPRODUCTIO
24、NWASCONSUMEDINTERNALLYCURRENTLY,GECONSUMESONLYASMALLPERCENTAGEOFANNUALPOLYCARBONATEPRODUCTIONSEETHEAPPENDIXFORFURTHERDETAILSHAPPILY,CASESSUCHASGE,WHEREASINGLEFIRMHOLDSMORETHANONEFUNCTIONALROLEWITHRESPECTTOANINNOVATION,AREVERYRAREINOURSAMPLESWHENDUALORMULTIPLEROLESAREHELDBYTHESAMEINNOVATINGFIRMORINDI
25、VIDUAL,SEVERECODINGPROBLEMSEMERGEOFTEN,ONECANNOTDETERMINEWHICHROLETHEINNOVATORWAS“REALLY“MOTIVATEDBYDURINGTHEDEVELOPMENTWORKMANUFACTURERSASINNOVATORSPLASTICSADDITIVESPLASTICSADDITIVESAREUSEDTOMODIFYTHEPROPERTIESOFABASICPOLYMERINDESIREDWAYSANENORMOUSNUMBEROFADDITIVESEXIST,ANDTHEYAREGENERALLYCATEGORIZ
26、EDACCORDINGTOTHEFUNCTIONTHEYPERFORMTHUS,THEREARECOLORINGAGENTS,FLAMERETARDANTS,FUNGICIDES,FILLINGMATERIALS,REINFORCINGMATERIALS,ANDSOONEACHOFTHESECATEGORIESCONTAINSANUMBEROFMATERIALSOFVARYINGPROPERTIESTOSERVETHESPECIFIEDFUNCTIONIDECIDEDTOEXAMINETHESOURCESOFINNOVATIONINTWOCATEGORIESOFPLASTICSADDITIVE
27、SPLASTICIZERSANDULTRAVIOLETUVSTABILIZERSTHESETWOADDITIVETYPESADDRESSMARKETSOFVERYDIFFERENTSIZEIN1983MORETHAN600,000METRICTONSOFPLASTICIZERSOFALLTYPESWERESOLDBINTHATSAMEYEAR,APPROXIMATELY2300METRICTONSOFUVSTABILIZERSOFALLTYPESWERESOLDIDONOTHAVEDATAONDOLLARVOLUMESINTHESETWOCATEGORIESULTRAVIOLETSTABILI
28、ZERPRICESARETYPICALLYSOMEWHATHIGHERTHANPLASTICIZERPRICES,HOWEVERPLASTICIZERSAREMATERIALSTHATAREINCORPORATEDINTOPLASTICSTOIMPROVEPROPERTIESSUCHASWORKABILITYANDFLEXIBILITYWITHOUTPLASTICIZERS,PLASTICSSUCHASPOLYVINYLCHLORIDEPVCWOULDBEHARDANDBRITTLEULTRAVIOLETSTABILIZERSAREADDEDTOPLASTICSTOPROTECTTHEMFRO
29、MTHEEFFECTOFULTRAVIOLETLIGHTSUCHASTHATPRESENTINSUNLIGHTWITHOUTSUCHPROTECTION,SUSCEPTIBLEPLASTICSWOULDQUICKLYDISCOLOR,BECOMEBRITTLE,ORSHOWOTHERUNDESIRABLECHANGESTHESAMPLETHESAMPLEOFPLASTICIZESANDULTRAVIOLETSTABILIZERINNOVATIONSINCLUDEDALLCOMMERCIALIZEDCOMPOUNDSTHATMETFOURCRITERIAFIRST,THEADDITIVEWASA
30、PPROPRIATEFORUSEWITHATLEASTONEOFTHEFOURLARGESTPLASTICSINCOMMERCIALUSEPOLYETHYLENE,POLYVINYLCHLORIDE,POLYSTYRENE,ANDPOLYPROPYLENESECOND,THEADDITIVEMUSTHAVEBEENFIRSTCOMMERCIALIZEDAFTERTHEWORLDWARIIAREQUIREMENTADDEDUNDERTHEASSUMPTIONTHATDATAONMORERECENTINNOVATIONSWOULDBEOFHIGHQUALITYTHIRD,THEADDITIVEMU
31、STHAVEBEENCOMMERCIALLYSUCCESSFUL,THATIS,ITHADTOHAVEBEENSOLDONTHEOPENMARKETANDREGARDEDASASUCCESSFULPRODUCTBYEXPERTINTERVIEWEESINTHEADDITIVESINDUSTRYFOURTH,THEADDITIVEWASINCLUDEDONLYIFITREPRESENTEDANIMPROVEMENTOVERPREVIOUSLYCOMMERCIALIZEDADDITIVESONAPROPERTYOFIMPORTANCETOUSERSOTHERTHANCOST,FOREXAMPLE,
32、DECREASEDTOXICITYORINCREASEDEASEOFUSETHESAMPLEOFPLASTICIZERSANDULTRAVIOLETSTABILIZERSSELECTEDASMEETINGTHESECRITERIAISIDENTIFIEDINTABLE37FINDINGSTHESOURCESOFPLASTICSADDITIVESINNOVATIONASCANBESEENINTABLE38,MORETHAN90OFTHEPLASTICSADDITIVESINNOVADONSSTUDIEDWEREDEVELOPEDBYFIRMSTHATMANUFACTUREDTHEMINTERES
33、TINGLY,TWOUVSTABILIZERINNOVATIONSCODEDASMANUFACTURERDEVELOPEDSHOWEDAPATTERNIHADNOTFOUNDBEFOREASINGLEMANUFACTURERDIDNOTDEVELOPTHEINNOVATIONONITSOWNINSTEAD,ANASSOCIATIONOFMANUFACTURERSFUNDEDTHEREQUIREDRDWORKATAPRIVATERESEARCHFIRMSUPPLIERSASINNOVATORSUPTOTHISPOINTINTHERESEARCHONTHEFUNCTIONALSOURCESOFIN
34、NOVATION,MYSTUDENTSANDIHADCONDUCTEDSIXSTUDIESINTOTALANDHADONLYOBSERVEDINNOVATIONBYUSERSAND/ORMANUFACTURERSBUTEXPERIENCEGAINEDINTHESESTUDIESWASLEADINGMETOSPECULATEASTOTHECAUSEOFTHESTRIKINGVARIATIONSINTHEFUNCTIONALSOURCEOFINNOVATIONTHATWEHADBEENOBSERVINGIWILLDISCUSSTHISMATTERINTHENEXTCHAPTERFORPRESENT
35、PURPOSES,HOWEVER,LETMEJUSTSAYMYSPECULATIONWASTHATINNOVATIONAPPEAREDTOBE“CAUSED“BYPOTENTIALINNOVATORSRELATIVEPREINNOVATIONEXPECTATIONSOFINNOVATIONRELATEDBENEFITAND,THEREFORE,ITSEEMEDTOMETHATINNOVATIONINANYNUMBEROFFUNCTIONALLOCISHOULDEXIST,GIVENONLYTHEPROPERLEVELANDDISTRIBUTIONOFBENEFITEXPECTATIONSSO,
36、PIETERVANDERWERFPHDCANDIDATEANDISETOUTDELIBERATELYTOFINDINNOVATIONINATHIRDFUNCTIONALLOCUS,SUPPLIERSSUPPLIERSAREFIRMSORINDIVIDUALSWHOSERELATIONSHIPTOANINNOVATIONISTHATOFSUPPLYINGCOMPONENTSORMATERIALSREQUIREDINTHEINNOVATIONSMANUFACTUREORUSEITSEEMEDREASONABLEINAROUGHWAYTHATSUPPLIERSMIGHTDEVELOPANINNOVA
37、TIONTHATTHEYDIDNOTEXPECTTOUSEORSELLIFTHATINNOVATIONWOULDRESULTINALARGEINCREASEINDEMANDFORSOMETHINGTHEYDIDWANTTOSELLTHUS,GASUTILITIESMIGHTDEVELOPNOVELGASAPPLIANCESANDGIVETHEDESIGNSAWAYTOAPPLIANCEMANUFACTURERS,HOPINGTOCAPTURERENTSFROMINCREASEDGASSALES,RATHERTHANFROMMAKINGORUSINGTHEINNOVATIVEAPPLIANCEI
38、TSELFBASEDONTHISLOGIC,WELOOKEDFORINNOVATIONCATEGORIESTHATMIGHTCONTAINSUPPLIERINNOVATIONBYLOOKINGFORPROCESSESUSINGAGREATDEALOFRELATIVELYEXPENSIVEMATERIALORCOMPONENTSASANINPUT译文创新的源泉ERICVONHIPPEL一总论长时间以来,人们通常假定产品创新主要是由产品制造商完成的,由于这一假定与谁是创新者这一根本问题相关,所以它不可避免地影响到与创新相关的研究,企业的研究开发管理和政府的创新政策。但是,现在看来这一假设常常是错误
39、的。在本书开头几章,我给出了一系列的研究结果。这些研究表明创新源是富有变化的。在一些领域,创新用户开发出多数创新。在另外一些领域,与创新相关的零部件和材料供应商是典型的创作者。接着,我探讨了这样一个问题为什么创新的职能源会有变化如何预测创新源最后,我用用户,制造商,供应商和其他厂商以一种可预测的方式分布于创新过程的假设,替代制造商是唯一创新者的假设,并对这一替代的意义做了检验。1、创新职能源的差异我们会看到用户有时会创新,可是他们经常这样么或者说创新职能源是在用户,制造者,供应商或者其他创新者之间以某一方式变化的呢为了回答这些问题,我们要有至少几个创新来源类型的数据。因此,我的学生和我共同实施
40、了六个简单的研究,这个我会在这一章写道。每一个研究都测试了一种不同的创新类型。前四个研究的创新类别的选择与我的所在领域的技术知识相匹配,是有大量的研究生参与到我们这个项目中的。后两个研究的主题是基于不同的一个基础,我会在讨论到这两个研究的时候讲解的。每一个研究都使用相同的方法,以便使这些研究所得出的结论是相称的,并且每一个研究都紧紧地围绕一个问题什么是创新的源泉这些研究表明创新的职能源是惊人的不同,横跨几个我所研究创新的产品和进程类型。2、作为创新者的制造商牵引式铲车牵引式铲车在建筑行业中是一个非常有用的工具。与建筑行业专家的最初对话使我们猜想牵引式铲车的用户是创新者。每个人都认为建筑公司面对
41、着不同的挑战和严峻的工期,经常需要通宵修改一些建设项目。设备解决了这个问题,并节省了时间。事实上,牵引式铲车的制造商原来才是牵引式铲车成功创新的主要来源。牵引式铲车可视为在一个四轮的胶轮机的最前端安装了一个大型的可移动式铲子。它通常用于开挖等施工任务,以及为一般的散装物料处理,这些物料包括从煤炭到大豆化学品。那些居住在严冷冬天的国家的住户对牵引式铲车有一个清晰的印象当普通的卡车被积雪阻断后,通常是由这些牵引式铲车来挖通道路的。牵引式铲车有不同的型号。一种是用于在露天矿中把矿铲入卡车中,这种是20CUYD型号的,另一种是稍小点的,用于仓库物料的转移,这种机器每次转移1CUYD。在1980年,约4
42、1,000辆不同型号的牵引式铲车被制造,总值15亿美元。示例最早的牵引式铲车发展于1939年。示例中包含了牵引式铲车商业化前至1970年最简单的创新与所有重大改进。在表33中主要的改进类别的创新都按装于几乎是所有的机器,基本上对所有的用户都有用。例如,声音,创新于用铰链把牵引式铲车放于中间、大大提高了指导和牵引,基本上对所有的用户有用,并且现在应用于几乎所有的拖拉机铲中。相比之下,专用配件列出的创新,只体现在一些专门任务中。因此,长臂机器手基本上是被高负荷双面车采用,而圆形抓斗主要用于木材公司的伐木作业。当然,许多其他特殊用途的配件存在,从纳税人到沥青吹雪机。该研究选择了五个比较大的用户群体。
43、发现牵引式铲车创新的源泉在图34里我们可以清楚的看到,几乎所有创新研究,都是被制造者发展起来的。在这两个例子里面,这些创新制造者在制造联盟或者卖方联盟里都是很有名气的。这些企业是专业制造牵引式铲车或相似机器的配件。有时,他们只是简单的机器设备商人。只有一个创新研究是被使用者完全发展像这个附加的车钩技术,就是被一个农民在他的农场里使用发展而来的。但是使用者有些时候会有一些其他方面相关的创新研究。例如,之前钢胎被一个制造者发展而来,是因为牵引机的使用者为了保护他们的轮胎而在他们的外胎上套上钢链引发的。作为创新者的制造商工程热塑料,工程热塑料都是有机化学的成果。且大部分被发明是在第二次世界大战后。机
44、器塑料象征着塑料能够在机器上得到应用。更早的机器塑料的来临,是由金属和玻璃制成。现在,我们都造出更好更便宜的塑料。当人们认定这个塑料为聚乙烯的时候,所有工程塑料是生产很少,但是却有很好的销路。样本工程塑料创新包括所有成功商业工程热塑性单体的市场引入,并在1955年后,每年取得至少1000万镑收入。这五个工程学热塑性单体的创新选择标准与图35里相一致。发现工程热塑料创新的源泉当我们看到图36,五个工程塑料样本中有“四个和一半”是由塑料制造者开发。因此,这些非常小的样本显示了一个非常明显的制造者创新的局面。创新被操纵成50使用者和50制造者是1960年的GE公司所生产的聚碳酸酯。GE即是聚碳酸酯的
45、一个主要使用者也是最大的生产者。在那个时期的商业化与本产品容量并没有像今天那样紧密联系,GE个人估计有50的生产是给自己使用。令人高兴的是,像GE这样的企业充当了不只一个有影响的角色,还渴望创新,在我们的样本里是非常少见的。多样的角色被一个创新企业或者个人所掌握,有一个问题出现,通常,不能决定哪个角色在发展中是真正动机明确的。3、作为创新者的制造商塑料添加剂塑料添加剂通常被用于改变一个聚合物的属性。数量巨大的添加剂存在,并且根据它们的表现分为不同的种类。因此可分为着色剂,阻燃剂,杀菌剂,填充材料,增强材料。每一种都包含很多各种材料的属性以达到特殊的作用。我决定去检测两种塑料添加剂的创新的来源增
46、塑剂和紫外线(UV)稳定剂。这两个添加剂在市场的份额差别很大。增塑剂是一种添加进去使可加工性和弹性增加的材料。没有塑化剂,聚乙烯塑料将会很硬也很脆。紫外线稳定剂是防止太阳中的紫外线的影响。没有这种材料,敏感的塑料在阳光下会很快变色,变脆,或者其他不想要的改变。样本增塑剂和紫外线稳定剂的创新包是能够满足四个标准商品化的化合物。首先,这个添加剂是适用于至少一种拥有很大市场份额的塑料。第二,这个添加剂必须在二战后机器设备里被使用,因为越近代的创新越能显现高的质量,第三,这个添加剂必须是商业化成功的,这就是说已经在公开市场上出售,并被认为在添加剂这一块是成功的高新产品工业。第四,添加剂要与先前的商业化
47、的添加剂在重要性方面有所提高,而不是成本上面。比如,减少毒性或者增加舒适性。这个增塑剂和紫外线稳定剂样本被选来作为与图37一致的标准。发现塑料添加剂创新的源泉如图38所显示,超过90的塑料添加剂的创新研究是由生产的企业开发而来的。有趣的是,两个UV稳定剂是由制造者开发,这是我过去所没有发现的一个单个生产者不能开发创新来源,相反,一系列的生产者把资金投放在一个私人研究企业中。4、作为创新者的供应商对于在创新的源泉研究这点,我的学生和我一共开展了六个研究,只发现使用者和制造者的创新。但是在这些研究中获得的经验使我深思已经被我们发现,醒目的创新来源的变化。我将在下章讨论这点,让我思考创新好像是由潜在
48、的创新者产生的。而且,似乎对于我来说,创新在任何职能部位都存在。所以,PIETERVANDERWERFPHDCANDIDATE和我规定在第三个职能部位找到新的创新来源,即供给商。供给商是指向创新制造者提供有关的创新元件和材料的企业或者个体。以粗略的方式估计,这似乎是有道理的,供应商可能开发一种创新,这种创新会导致市场对他们想销售东西的需求的大幅度增加,而创新的本身是他们没想到会使用或出售的。因此,燃气公用事业可能发展新型气体用具,给家电制造商设计客场,希望能捕捉天然气销售增加的租金,而不是从制造,使用的产品本身的创新所得到。基于这个逻辑,我们找了创新的类别,可能包含了使用相对昂贵的材料或作为一个大量输入组件的供应商来寻找创新过程。导师评语签字年月日
Copyright © 2018-2021 Wenke99.com All rights reserved
工信部备案号:浙ICP备20026746号-2
公安局备案号:浙公网安备33038302330469号
本站为C2C交文档易平台,即用户上传的文档直接卖给下载用户,本站只是网络服务中间平台,所有原创文档下载所得归上传人所有,若您发现上传作品侵犯了您的权利,请立刻联系网站客服并提供证据,平台将在3个工作日内予以改正。