发展中国家都市农业的潜力，问题和政策的影响【外文翻译】.doc

1、毕业论文外文原文外文题目POTENTIALS,PROBLEMSANDPOLICYIMPLICATIONSFORURBANAGRICULTUREINDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES出处AGRICULTURALSCIENCES,IMPERICALCOLLEGEATWYE,KENT,UK作者ERIKBRYLDUNITEDNATIONSDEVELOPMENTPROGRAMMEKATHMANDU,NEPALABSTRACTURBANAGRICULTUREHAS,FORCENTURIES,SERVEDASAVITALINPUTINTHELIVELIHOODSTRATEGIESOFURBANHOUSE

2、HOLDSINTHEDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESASARESPONSETOTHEECONOMICCRISESEXACERBATEDBYTHESTRUCTURALADJUSTMENTPROGRAMSANDINCREASINGMIGRATION,URBANAGRICULTUREHASEXPANDEDRAPIDLYWITHINTHELAST20YEARSANEXAMINATIONOFTHEGENERALTRENDSINURBANAGRICULTUREREVEALSANUMBEROFISSUESPOLICYMAKERSINDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESSHOULDADDRESSTOP

3、ROVIDESERVICESTOENSUREASUSTAINABLEBEHAVIORTOWARDSURBANCULTIVATIONMOSTIMPORTANTISTHELEGALIZATIONOFURBANAGRICULTUREASASTEPTOWARDSSECURINGLANDSFORTHEURBANPOORTHEILLEGALSTATUSHASLEFTAGOVERNANCEVACUUM,WHICHSHOULDBEFILLEDTHROUGHPOLICYFORMULATIONANDREGULARINSTITUTIONALIZEDMANAGEMENTINAPARTICIPATORYMANNERIN

4、CLUDINGALLRELEVANTSTAKEHOLDERSIFFOODSECURITYHASTOBEINCREASEDANDENVIRONMENTIMPROVEDINANURBANDEVELOPMENTCONTEXTKEYWORDSENVIRONMENT,FOODSECURITY,GENDER,GOVERNANCE,LIVELIHOODSTRATEGIES,POLICY,STRUCTURALADJUSTMENT,URBANAGRICULTURE,URBANPLANNINGAGRICULTURALPRODUCTIONINURBANAREASISNOTANEWPHENOMENONINDEVELO

5、PINGCOUNTRIESTHEUNITEDNATIONSDEVELOPMENTPROGRAMMEUNDPESTIMATESTHATAPPROXIMATELY800MILLIONURBANRESIDENTSWEREENGAGEDINAGRICULTURALPRODUCTIONINTHEMID1990S,COMMERCIALORSUBSISTENCEUNDP,1996BORGUE,2000URBANAGRICULTUREHASUNDERGONEARADICALTRANSFORMATIONSINCETHELATE1970SANDEARLY1980SINAFRICA,URBANCULTIVATION

6、HASBECOMEAPERMANENTPARTOFTHELANDSCAPEINTHEBEGINNINGOFTHE1980S,AMERE1025OFTHEURBANPOPULATIONINAFRICAWASENGAGEDINURBANAGRICULTUREWHILEUPTO70OFTHEURBANPOPULATIONINAFRICA,ANDUPTO60INASIA,HAVEBECOMEURBANCULTIVATORSINTHE1990SROGERSON,1997TODAY,70OFTHEPOULTRYFOODCONSUMEDINKAMPALAISPRODUCEDWITHINTHECITYBOUN

7、DARIESINKATHMANDUANDZAMBIA,MORETHANATHIRDOFTHESUBSISTENCEFOODPRODUCTIONISPRODUCEDWITHINTHECITYALLTHREECITIESHAVEWITNESSEDAMASSIVESHIFTINUSEOFTHEURBANLANDSCAPEFROMOPENSPACESTOAGRICULTURALPRODUCTIONINDARESSALAAM,THENUMBEROFFAMILIESENGAGEDINAGRICULTURALPRODUCTIONHASINCREASEDFROM18TO67FROM1967TO1991,MAK

8、INGURBANAGRICULTURETHESECONDLARGESTEMPLOYERAFTERPETTYTRADEUNDP,1996RATTAANDNASR,1996THEPRIMARYDRIVINGFORCEBEHINDTHISCONTINUOUSINCREASEINURBANAGRICULTUREISANINCREASEINMIGRATIONFROMRURALTOURBANAREASASWELLASTHEWORSENINGECONOMICSITUATIONOFTHEURBANPOPULATIONASACONSEQUENCEOFTHEBRETTONWOODSINSTITUTIONSSTRU

9、CTURALADJUSTMENTPROGRAMSTHESTRUCTURALADJUSTMENTPROGRAMSFOCUSONGROWTHAIMINGATINCREASINGTHEINCOMELEVELTHROUGHMANAGEMENTOFRESOURCESMOREPROPERLYTHROUGHMARKETLIBERALIZATIONSCOTT,1993THESTRUCTURALADJUSTMENTPROGRAMSHAVE,HOWEVER,OFTENRESULTEDINANOTEWORTHYECONOMICSETBACKOFTHEPOORESTPARTOFTHEPOPULATIONWHOCANN

10、OTAFFORDTHEFREEMARKETPRICESOFBASICFOODTHESEPROGRAMSRESULTEDINAREMOVALOFSUBSIDIESTOFOODPRODUCTIONINTHEDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESSEEKINGLOANSFROMTHEWORLDBANKANDINTERNATIONALMONETARYFUND,WHICHCONSEQUENTLYLEDTOALIBERALIZATIONOFTHE80ERIKBRYLDFOODTRADE,WHICHAGAINRESULTEDINSIGNIFICANTPRICERISEFIVEFOLDRATTAANDNASR

11、,1996PARALLELWITHTHERISEINPRICES,SALARIESANDREALWAGESWEREDEVALUATEDUPTO10TIMES,LEAVINGTHECITIZENSWITHLIMITEDRESOURCESFORFOODPROVISIONTHISDOUBLEBURDENHASINCREASEDTHEINTRAURBANPOVERTYANDPUSHEDURBANCITIZENSTOBECOMEENGAGEDINURBANAGRICULTUREINORDERTOFEEDHOUSEHOLDPOTTS,1997SCOTT,1993MBIBA,1995ARATTAANDNAS

12、R,1996MAXWELL,1999TERMINOLOGYMWALUKASA2000150DEFINESURBANAGRICULTUREAS“CARRYINGOUTFARMINGACTIVITIESINBUILTUPAREASWHEREOPENSPACEISAVAILABLE,ASWELLASKEEPINGLIVESTOCKDAIRY,CATTLE,GOATS,SHEEP,PIGSANDFOWLINBUILTUPANDINPERIURBANAREAS”THISDEFINITIONCAPTURESTHEESSENCEOFURBANAGRICULTURE,WHILEATTHESAMETIMEITI

13、LLUSTRATESONEOFTHEMAINPROBLEMSWITHITSCONCEPTUALIZATION,THATOFDEFININGTHEKEYAREAURBAN,INADEVELOPMENTCONTEXTUNDP19969DEFINESURBAN“INABROADSENSE,TOENCOMPASSTHEENTIREAREAINWHICHACITYSSPHEREOFINFLUENCESOCIAL,ECOLOGICAL,ORECONOMICCOMESTOBEARDAILYORDIRECTLYONITSPOPULATION”BUTWHEREDOESTHECITYSSOCIAL,ECOLOGI

14、CAL,ORECONOMICSPHEREENDCITIESARENOTISOLATEDAREASANDTHEIRSPHEREIS,THEREFORE,NOTAPRESETBOUNDARYASTACOLI19983PUTSIT,THEREISALACKOFRECOGNITIONOFTHECOMPLEXITYOFRURALURBANINTERACTIONSWHICHINVOLVESPATIALASWELLASSECTORALDIMENSIONSTHEGROWINGEVIDENCEOFTHESCALEANDNATUREOFURBANAGRICULTUREANDOFRURALNONAGRICULTUR

15、ALENTERPRISESANDEMPLOYMENTSUGGESTSTHATTHESEDISTINCTIONSAREOVERSIMPLIFIEDDESCRIPTIONSOFBOTHRURALANDURBANLIVELIHOODSACTIVITIESRELATEDTOURBANAGRICULTUREARERARELYISOLATEDFROMRURALAREASACTIVITIESINRURALANDURBANAREASAREOFTENINTERLINKEDACROSSSPACEANDSECTORSTHEPROBLEMWITHTHEDEFINITIONVERYCLEARLYREVEALSTHATC

16、ITYBORDERSAREFLUENT,WHICHISFURTHEREMPHASIZEDBYTHEACTIVERURALURBANINTERACTIONSTAKINGPLACEINTHEPERIURBANAREAS1ITIS,THEREFORE,IMPORTANTTHATURBANAGRICULTUREISSEENASADYNAMICCONCEPTTHEREISTHUSANEEDFORRECOGNITIONOFTHEDIVERSITYOFURBANAGRICULTUREWHENDEALINGWITHISSUESOFURBANAGRICULTUREANDMAKINGPOLICIESWITHINT

17、HISFIELD,ITISVITALTHATTHEPARTICULARITIESOFTHESETTINGSARETAKENINTOCONSIDERATIONWHILEATTHESAMETIMEITISIMPORTANTTOUNDERSTANDTHATURBANAGRICULTUREISNOTANISOLATEDPHENOMENON,BUTANACTIVITYINTERLINKEDWITHACTIVITIESINBOTHPERIURBANANDRURALAREASWHEREISURBANAGRICULTUREPRACTICEDANDBYWHOMTHEINCREASEINURBANAGRICULT

18、UREHASBROUGHTWITHITNEWSPACESWHERECULTIVATIONISEXERCISEDMOSTCOMMONISCULTIVATIONINTHEBACKYARDANDAROUNDBUILDINGSHOWEVER,COMMUNITY,ANDPUBLICLANDS,ANDPARKS,HAVEALSOBEENINVADEDBYURBANAGRICULTURISTSWITHINTHELASTDECADESAMONGTHESEAREAREASALLOCATEDTOOTHERUSES,SUCHASROADSIDESANDAIRPORTBUFFERSASWELLASAREASNOTSU

19、ITABLEFORBUILDINGSUCHASSTREAMSIDES,FLOODPLAINS,DRAINAGEWAYLEAVES,WETLANDS,ANDSTEEPSLOPESFREEMAN,1993UNDP,1996EVENTHOUGHTHEMAJORITYOFTHEPRODUCEGROWNINURBANAREASINTHEDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESGOESTOSUBSISTENCE,THEREAREALSOOTHERINCENTIVESFORGOINGINTOURBANAGRICULTURESOMEURBANHIGHINCOMEINHABITANTSUSEAGRICULTURE

20、ASASTRATEGYOFFURTHERACCUMULATIONTHROUGHTHEPRODUCTIONOFHIGHYIELDCROPSCLOSETOTHEMARKET,WHILESOMEMIDDLEINCOMEHOUSEHOLDSUSEURBANCULTIVATIONASMEANSOFCONSOLIDATION,SECURINGTHEFAMILYWELLBEINGTHEMAJORITYOFURBANAGRICULTURISTSARE,HOWEVER,ENGAGEDINCULTIVATIONASAMEANSOFSURVIVALFREEMAN,1993ATUKUNDAANDMAXWELL,199

21、6RIGG,1998URBANAGRICULTUREHASBECOMEASURVIVALSTRATEGYFORURBANHOUSEHOLDSASMAXWELL19991950PUTSITUNDERCIRCUMSTANCESWHERELOWINCOMEURBANPOPULATIONSARESPENDINGUPTOTHREEQUARTERSOFTHEIRTOTALINCOMEONFOOD,THEISSUESOFINCOMEANDLIVELIHOODAREDIRECTLYLINKEDTOFOODSECURITYPEOPLEARENOTPASSIVEVICTIMSWITHINTHECONSTRAINT

22、STHEYFACE,PEOPLEDOTHEIRBESTTOCOPE,TOMAKEENDSMEET,TOPROTECTTHEIRLIVELIHOODS,ANDMEETTHEIRBASICREQUIREMENTSHAVINGTHEOPPORTUNITYOFGROWINGFOODORKEEPINGPOULTRY,THEREFORE,BECOMESACRITICALCOMPONENTINTHEABILITYOFSTAYINGALIVEINTHEURBANENVIRONMENT,DESPITETHEFACTTHATITISILLEGALINMOSTDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESMAXWELL,1

23、999NUGENT,2000THEURBANPOOR2RARELYHAVEACCESSTOFARMINGPLOTSOFSUCHAMAGNITUDETHATTHEYCANSUPPORTTHEWHOLEFAMILYWITHFOODCONSEQUENTLY,URBANAGRICULTUREGENERALLYSERVESASAVITALSIDEEARNINGFORMOSTHOUSEHOLDSTHEPOORESTFAMILIESOFTENHAVETOSELLSOMEOFTHEIRPRODUCETOSURVIVEINORDERTOPAYRENT,SCHOOL,ORMEDICALEXPENSES,EVENI

24、FTHISMEANSTHATTHEFAMILYWILLNOTRECEIVESUFFICIENTFOODINASTUDYBYPOLICYANDURBANAGRICULTURE81FREEMAN199312INNAIROBI,THEMOSTCOMMONLYEXPRESSEDPRIMEMOTIVATIONFORURBANCULTIVATIONISTHENEEDTOAVERTHUNGERFORTHECULTIVATORSANDTHEIRFAMILIESBYPRODUCINGSTAPLECROPSURBANAGRICULTURETHENBECOMESAFORMOFSEMIPROLETARISMWHERE

25、THEPRODUCERSRELYONBOTHSUBSISTENCEANDCASHINCOMEFREEMAN,1993MAXWELL,1995RIGG,1998INTHEDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES,ESPECIALLYINSUBSAHARANAFRICAANDSOUTHASIA,THISPRODUCTIONPATTERNGENERALLYMEANSTHATITISTHEWOMENWHOAREINCHARGEOFCULTIVATIONMBIBA,1995BMAXWELL,1995THERESEEMSTOBETWOMAINREASONSFORTHISFIRST,URBANCULTIVAT

26、IONISRELATIVELYEASILYFITTEDINTOWOMENSDAILYWORKPATTERNWITHTHEPLOTSSITUATEDRELATIVELYCLOSETOTHERESIDENCE,THEFEMALEHOUSEHOLDMEMBERSAREEASILYATTENDINGTOTHEPRODUCEIFANDWHENTHEYHAVEABREAKFROMOTHERDUTIES3SECOND,DIFFERENTRESEARCHFROMDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESSHOWTHATMENGENERALLYDONOTREGARDURBANAGRICULTUREASABUSINE

27、SS,BUTONLYASAMARGINALACTIVITYMAXWELL,1995DENNERY,1996THISRELATIVELYSTRONGDIVIDEINGENDERROLESHASREVEALEDTWOSIGNIFICANTCONSEQUENCESFIRST,THEINCREASEINDEVELOPINGHOUSEHOLDSENGAGEMENTINURBANAGRICULTUREHASBURDENEDWOMENEVENMOREIFNOTENGAGEDINOTHERINCOMEGENERATINGACTIVITIES,WOMENUSUALLYWORKFULLTIMEONDOMESTIC

28、DUTIES,ASTHEYAREGENERALLYRESPONSIBLEFORTHEHOUSEHOLDREPRODUCTION,WHICHUSUALLYINCLUDESOBTAININGFOODANDWATER,COOKING,CLEANING,WASHINGCLOTHES,ANDLOOKINGAFTERCHILDREN,ELDERS,ANDTHESICK,BESIDESBEINGENGAGEDINPETTYTRADEFURTHERMORE,ITISUSUALLYWOMENRATHERTHANMENWHOFORGOFOODINORDERTOFEEDTHEIRCHILDRENBESIDESADD

29、INGTOTHEDAILYBURDENOFWORK,THESECUTSINSPARETIMEKEEPWOMENFROMACQUIRINGHIGHERPAYINGINFORMALORFORMALSECTOROCCUPATIONINTHISSENSE,URBANAGRICULTURECANBECOMEALOWINCOMETRAPTHATIMPRISONSUNSKILLEDWOMENPOTTS,1997FREEMAN,1993UNDP,1996ONTHEOTHERHAND,DIFFERENTRESEARCHSHOWSTHATWOMENAREGENERALLYVERYPLEASEDWITHBEINGE

30、NGAGEDINURBANAGRICULTUREFREEMAN,1993DENNERY,1996MAXWELL,1999URBANAGRICULTUREIS,THUS,ANIMPORTANTLIVELIHOODSTRATEGYFORTHEHOUSEHOLDANDESPECIALLYTHEFEMALEMEMBERSTHEABOVEILLUSTRATESTHEPROBLEMOFWORKINGWITHTHEHOUSEHOLDASANENTITYWHENRESEARCHINGLIVELIHOODSTRATEGIESOFTENITBECOMESVERYUNCLEARWHERETHEHOUSEHOLDBE

31、GINSANDENDSHOUSEHOLDSMAYBEMULTISPATIALTHEDIFFERENTMEMBERSOFTHEHOUSEHOLDMAYWORKINBOTHRURALANDURBANAREASSOMEHOUSEHOLDMEMBERSMAYEVENRESIDEINURBANAREASFORPERIODSOFTIMEFORGENERATINGCASHWHILETHERESTLIVEANDWORKINRURALAREASANDEVENSO,THEYWILLOFTENALLBEPARTOFTHEHOUSEHOLDLIVELIHOODSTRATEGYHOWEVER,THISDISTINCTI

32、ONISNOTMADEEASIERBYTHEFACTTHATHOUSEHOLDMEMBERSDONOTALWAYSPOOLTHEIRINCOMES,RESULTINGINDIFFERENTANDOFTENINDIVIDUALLIVELIHOODSTRATEGIESEVENSO,URBANAGRICULTUREISAVITALELEMENTINTHESURVIVALSTRATEGYOFTHEHOUSEHOLDMEMBERSWHOCANGENERATEEXTRAINCOMETHROUGHTHEUTILIZATIONOFTHEPOTENTIALSOFURBANCULTIVATIONSMITH,199

33、6TACOLI,1998RIGG,1998ZEEUWETAL,2000POTENTIALSURBANAGRICULTUREBRINGSWITHITGREATPOTENTIALSFORENHANCINGTHESITUATIONOFTHEURBANCITIZENS,ESPECIALLYTHOSEWITHTHELOWESTINCOMESWHOAREDEPENDENTONTHEACCESSTOLOCALLYGROWNFOODFOODSECURITYASURBANIZATIONINCREASES,SODOESTHENEEDFORSUFFICIENTFOODTHEOPPORTUNITYTOGROWAND/

34、ORACQUIREFOODPRODUCEDLOCALLY,THEREFORE,BECOMESACRITICALCOMPONENTINSURVIVINGINTHECITYTHUS,URBANAGRICULTUREPLAYSASIGNIFICANTROLEINCONTRIBUTINGTOTHEWELFAREOFESPECIALLYPOORURBANRESIDENTSMAXWELL,1995LOURENCOLINDELL,1996MWALUKASA,2000NUGENT,2000ZEEUWETAL,2000RESEARCHCONDUCTEDBYTHEWORLDBANKUNDP,1996160HASS

35、HOWNTHATAMAJORITYOFADULTSANDCHILDRENLIVINGINLOWINCOMEURBANAREASHAVEDISEASESTHATLIMITTHEIRCAPACITYTOLEARNANDWORKTHISSITUATIONCANBEIMPROVEDIFTHECITIZENSAREENGAGEDINURBANFARMING,WHICHWILLDECREASEMALNUTRITIONANDINCREASETHEQUANTITYOFFOODINTAKERESOURCESFREEDBYTHEPRODUCTIONOFURBANCULTIVATIONCAN,FORINSTANCE

36、,BEUSEDTOBALANCETHEFAMILYDIETBYPURCHASINGOTHERKINDSOFFOOD,EG,FISH,FRUIT,ANDVEGETABLESURBANPOORAREGENERALLYMOREDEPENDENTONCASHINCOMETOPURCHASEFOODDAILYDIETARYINTAKES,THEREFORE,VARYACCORDINGTOTHEDAYSINCOMEANDMARKETPRICECONSEQUENTLY,ASTABLEINTAKEOFSELFGROWNPRODUCEWILLREDUCETHECITIZENSDEPENDENCEONTHEIRF

37、LUCTUATINGSALARIESANDIMPROVETHEIRNUTRITIONSMITH,1996UNDP,1996ECONOMICADVANTAGESSINCEMOSTOFTHEPRODUCEOFURBANAGRICULTUREISUSEDFORSUBSISTENCECONSUMPTION,ITCANBEDIFFICULTTOASSESSTHEIMPACTOFURBANAGRICULTUREONTHEECONOMYTHEREISLITTLEDOUBT,THOUGH,THATURBANAGRICULTURECREATESCONSIDERABLEECONOMICACTIVITYINTHEC

38、ITIESTHISIS,AMONGOTHERFACTORS,CAUSEDBYTHEINCREASINGECONOMICUSEOFLAND,SINCEINCOMEISGENERATEDFROMTEMPORARILYAVAILABLELANDANDLANDSNOTSUITABLEFORBUILDINGMBIBA,1995ARATTAANDNASR,1996SMITH,1996UNDP,1996ITISDIFFICULT82ERIKBRYLDTOASSESSWHETHERURBANAGRICULTUREINTHEDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESHASASIGNIFICANTIMPACTONTH

39、EMACROECONOMICSHOWEVER,ASHAVEBEENDESCRIBEDBEFORE,BEINGRELIEVEDFROMUTILIZINGAVASTAMOUNTOFTHEHOUSEHOLDEARNINGSONFOODDUETOSELFPRODUCTIONMEANSTHATRESOURCESFORMERLYBOUNDTOPURCHASINGFOODCANNOWBEUSEDONOTHERPRESSINGNEEDS,SUCHASSCHOOLFEES,MEDICALTREATMENT,ORRENTTHISINEVITABLYINCREASESTHEROOMFORMANEUVERFORTHE

40、HOUSEHOLD,ESPECIALLYFORTHEWOMENWHOARETHEMOSTFREQUENTURBANCULTIVATORSINTHISWAY,URBANAGRICULTURECANSERVEASANEMPOWERMENTOFWOMENANDATTHESAMETIMEPROMOTEINCREASEDWELFAREFOROTHERHOUSEHOLDMEMBERSENVIRONMENTALADVANTAGESBESIDESTHEDIRECTNUTRITIONALBENEFITSOFURBANAGRICULTUREFORTHECULTIVATORS,THEREARESEVERALOTHE

41、RENVIRONMENTALADVANTAGESWORTHNOTICINGMOSTDEVELOPINGCOUNTRYCITIESDONOTHAVEENVIRONMENTALLYSUSTAINABLEPOLICIESWHENITCOMESTONUTRIENTRECYCLINGINMOSTCITIES,THEREISAGENERALTHROUGHPUTOFRESOURCES,INCREASINGTHEAMOUNTOFGARBAGEWASTEDTHEREAREDIFFERENTWAYSOFIMPROVINGTHECITIESENVIRONMENTS,AMONGTHESEPLANTINGOFTREES

42、,REDUCINGCONSUMPTION,ANDIMPROVINGTHEEFFICIENCYOFTHEINFRASTRUCTURETHECULTIVATIONOFPLANTSANDTREESHELPSREDUCEDUSTANDABSORBSPOLLUTANTSTHROUGHITSFOLIAGETREESANDPLANTSCANALSOINCREASETHEHUMIDITYINARIDCLIMATESANDREDUCERADIATIONALHEATINGTHROUGHCONVERSIONOFGROUNDWATERINTOATMOSPHERICHUMIDITYCULTIVATIONCANALSOT

43、URNUNSIGHTLYLOTSINTOGREENAREAS,PRESERVINGTHEMUCHNEEDEDGREENBELTSINTHECITIESFURTHERMORE,THEREISACONSTANTDEMANDFORFUELWOODINTHEDEVELOPINGCITIES,ADEMAND,THATCANBESUPPLIEDPARTLYBYFORESTRYINURBANANDPERIURBANAREASUNDP,1996URBANAGRICULTUREALSOCONTRIBUTESTOANIMPROVEDURBANENVIRONMENTINOTHERWAYSONEOFTHEMOSTEF

44、FICIENTWAYSOFIMPROVINGTHEENVIRONMENTISTHROUGHRECYCLINGOFORGANICWASTECOMPOSTFROMURBANORGANICSCANEASILYBEAPPLIEDINURBANANDPERIURBANPLOTSANDSERVEASFERTILIZERFURTHERMORE,HUMANEXCRETACANBEUSEDINFISHFARMINGSMITH,1996UNDP,1996FUREDYETAL,1999ALSO,RESEARCHINBANGKOKBYFRGEETAL2001DOCUMENTSHOWHUGEQUANTITIESOFPL

45、ANTNUTRIENTSTHATCOULDBERECOVEREDANDREUSEDAREDISCHARGEDINTOTHERIVERANDWASTEDANUTRIENTRECYCLINGPROGRAMTHATTRANSFERREDTHESEWASTESTOTHEURBANCULTIVATEDPLOTSCOULDIMPROVETHEENVIRONMENTANDINCREASETHEOUTPUTOFURBANAGRICULTUREPROBLEMSASHAVEBEENSHOWN,THEREARESEVERALADVANTAGESOFPROMOTINGURBANAGRICULTURE,BUTASTHI

46、SSECTIONWILLREVEAL,LIVINGWITHANDMANAGINGURBANAGRICULTUREISNOTUNPROBLEMATICINALMOSTALLDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES,URBANAGRICULTUREISDEJUREAND/ORDEFACTOILLEGALITISGENERALLYVIEWEDASANARTIFACTOFRURALLIFEANDTHEREFORENOTBELONGINGINTHECITYFURTHERMORE,ITISPERCEIVEDASHAVINGONLYMARGINALIMPORTANCETOTHEURBANECONOMYANDT

47、HEPEOPLEENGAGEDINTHISSECTORARESELDOMPEOPLEWITHINFLUENCEONTHECITYMANAGEMENTPUBLICHEALTHNUISANCESCOTT,1993MAXWELL,1995ATUKUNDAANDMAXWELL,1996POTENTIALHEALTHHAZARDURBANAGRICULTURECANBEAHEALTHHAZARDMULTIPLEPROBLEMSCANOCCURWHENSOLIDWASTEISPROCESSEDORWASTEWATERISUSEDFORIRRIGATIONANDFISHFARMINGPOORMANAGEME

48、NTOFCOMPOSTPILESINCREASESDISEASES,AMONGTHESEBRONCHITIS,TUBERCULOSIS,DYSENTERY,ANDCANCERCAUSEDBYWASTEGASESFURTHERMORE,LEADINSOILANDAIRISAMAJORCONTAMINANTTHATGREENLEAFYVEGETABLESCANCONCENTRATEINTHEIRLEAVESTHEREHAVEALSOBEENCASESOFUNTREATEDWASTEWATERBEINGUSEDFORFARMINGRESULTINGINCASESWITHCHOLERAUNDP,199

49、6FUREDYETAL,1999BORQUE,2000INSOMEREGIONS,CHEMICALFERTILIZERISUSEDTOENHANCETHEOUTPUT,APRACTICETHATCANPOSEPOTENTIALENVIRONMENTALPROBLEMSTHISPRACTICEISCATALYZEDBYTHEFACTTHATURBANCULTIVATIONISSTILLILLEGALINMANYDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES,FORCINGTHEFARMERSTOGETASMUCHOUTOFTHEPRODUCTIONINTHESHORTESTPERIODOFTIMESMITH,1996TAKINGUPSPACEFORHOUSESBESIDESFEEDINGTHEPOORINTHECITIES,THEREISANURGENTNEEDFORPROVIDINGSHELTERFORTHEHOMELESSTHEVASTAMOUNTOFLANDUSEDONURBANAGRICULTUREISANOBSTACLETOURBANHOUSINGPROVISIONINTHECITYOFHARARE,MORETHAN400,000PEOPLELACKHOUSING,FORCINGPEOPLETOLIVEINSHANTIESWITHINCREASEDHEALT