1、本科毕业论文（设计）外文翻译外文题目UNDERSTANDINGORGANISATIONALCULTUREANDTHEIMPLICATIONSFORCORPORATEMARKETING外文出处EUROPEANJOURNALOFMARKETINGVOLUME35ISSUE3/42001P356358外文作者ALANMWILSON原文UNDERSTANDINGORGANISATIONALCULTUREANDTHEIMPLICATIONSFORCORPORATEMARKETINGALANMWILSONDEFINITIONOFORGANISATIONALCULTURETHECONCEPTOFCULTUR
2、EHASPRINCIPALLYSTEMMEDFROMTHESTUDYOFETHNICANDNATIONALDIFFERENCESINTHEDISCIPLINESOFSOCIOLOGY,ANTHROPOLOGYANDSOCIALPSYCHOLOGYAGOODSUMMARYOFTHEMANYDEFINITIONSFORCULTUREDEVELOPEDINEACHOFTHESEDISCIPLINESWASGIVENBYTHECULTURALGEOGRAPHERHAGGETT1975,P238CULTUREDESCRIBESPATTERNSOFBEHAVIOURTHATFORMADURABLETEMP
3、LATEBYWHICHIDEASANDIMAGESCANBETRANSFERREDFROMONEGENERATIONTOANOTHER,ORFROMONEGROUPTOANOTHERTHREEASPECTSOFTHISDEFINITIONNEEDFURTHEREXPLANATIONFIRST,THETRANSFEROFBEHAVIOURDOESNOTTAKEPLACETHROUGHGENETICSBUTINSTEADTAKESPLACETHROUGHTHESOCIALINTERACTIONBETWEENMEMBERSOFAGROUPSECOND,ACCORDINGTOTHECULTUREPAT
4、TERNTHEORYEGBENEDICT,1934THEVARIOUSELEMENTSOFACULTURETENDTOFORMARELATIVELYSTABLEHARMONIOUSSYSTEMANDTHEREFOREANYCULTURALTEMPLATEISDURABLEANDSLOWTOCHANGETHIRD,THEIDEASANDIMAGESOFCULTUREPROVIDEAGUIDEFORTHECONDUCTOFACCEPTABLEBEHAVIOURASSUCH,MANYASPECTSOFTHECULTUREAREEMBODIEDINRULESOFVARIOUSSORTSSOMEAREL
5、AWSEGAGAINSTSTEALINGWHICHAREBACKEDBYOFFICIALPUNISHMENTFORDEVIATIONOTHERSARESOCIALNORMSEGABOUTWHATCLOTHESTOWEARWHICHAREBACKEDBYSOCIALDISAPPROVALANDREJECTIONOFDEVIATESINITIALLY,WITHINORGANISATIONALTHEORY,SCHOLARSUSEDTHECULTURECONCEPTASAMETAPHORTOSTUDYORGANISATIONSASFORUMSINWHICHMEANINGSARECONSTRUCTEDA
6、NDEXPRESSEDTHROUGHSOCIALINTERACTIONSBUTASITBECAMEPARTOFTHEVOCABULARYOFMANAGEMENTTHINKING,MOREANDMORERESEARCHERSBEGANTOEMPLOYCULTUREASAVARIABLERATHERTHANASAROOTMETAPHOR,SOMETHINGANORGANISATIONHADVERSUSSOMETHINGITWASSOMEOFTHEEARLIESTREFERENCESTOTHECONCEPTOFCULTUREASANINTERNALORGANISATIONALVARIABLEAREF
7、OUNDINTHELITERATUREOFORGANISATIONDEVELOPMENTJACQUES,1952HARRISON,1972SEVERALRESEARCHERSBEGANTOLINKVARIOUSTYPESOFCULTURESEGSTRONGVSWEAKTOCERTAINOUTCOMEVARIABLESSUCHASPERFORMANCEANDINTERNALINTEGRATIONEGDEALANDKENNEDY,1982WILKINSANDOUCHI,1983THUS,CULTUREBECAMEAMECHANISMWITHWHICHTOACHIEVEMANAGERIALEFFEC
8、TIVENESSANDCONTROLBARLEYETAL1988PETERSANDWATERMAN,1982DURINGTHESESTAGESOFDEVELOPMENT,ALARGENUMBEROFDEFINITIONSHAVEBEENPROPOSEDFORTHECONCEPTOFCULTUREINTHECORPORATESETTINGSOMEOFTHESEDRAWDIRECTLYONTHEDEFINITIONSFROMANTHROPOLOGYANDTHEOTHERROOTDISCIPLINES,OTHERSARESPECIFICTOTHECORPORATESECTORTHEMOREBASIC
9、DEFINITIONSDONOTAIDUNDERSTANDINGBUTSIMPLYPROVIDEAVAGUEDESCRIPTIONTOREPLACETHETERMCULTURETHESEDESCRIPTIONSRANGEFROMTHEFEELINGINTHEORGANISATIONTAGIURIANDLITWIN,1968TOTHERULESOFTHEGAMEVANMAANEN,1976,1979RITTIANDFUNKHOUSER,1982TOHOWTHINGSAREDONEAROUNDHEREDRENNAN,1992THESESIMPLEDESCRIPTIONSCONTRASTWITHTH
10、EMOREALLEMBRACINGANDMOREUSEFULDEFINITIONSPRODUCEDBYSCHEIN1991,SCHNEIDER1988ANDKOTTERANDHESKETT1992APATTERNOFBASICASSUMPTIONS,INVENTED,DISCOVEREDORDEVELOPEDBYAGIVENGROUPASITLEARNSTOCOPEWITHITSPROBLEMSOFEXTERNALADAPTATIONANDINTERNALINTEGRATIONTHATHASWORKEDWELLENOUGHTOBECONSIDEREDVALIDANDTHEREFORE,TOBE
11、TAUGHTTONEWMEMBERSASTHECORRECTWAYTOPERCEIVE,THINKANDRELATETOTHOSEPROBLEMSSCHEIN,1991,P9CULTUREREFERSTOATHEVALUESTHATLIEBENEATHWHATTHEORGANISATIONREWARDS,SUPPORTSANDEXPECTSBTHENORMSTHATSURROUNDAND/ORUNDERPINTHEPOLICIES,PRACTICESANDPROCEDURESOFORGANISATIONSCTHEMEANINGINCUMBENTSSHAREABOUTWHATTHENORMSAN
12、DVALUESOFTHEORGANISATIONARESCHNEIDER,1988,P353ATTHEDEEPERANDLESSVISIBLELEVEL,CULTUREREFERSTOVALUESTHATARESHAREDBYTHEPEOPLEINAGROUPANDTHATTENDTOPERSISTOVERTIMEEVENWHENGROUPMEMBERSHIPCHANGESATTHEMOREVISIBLELEVEL,CULTUREREPRESENTSTHEBEHAVIOURPATTERNSORSTYLEOFANORGANISATIONTHATNEWEMPLOYEESAREAUTOMATICAL
13、LYENCOURAGEDTOFOLLOWBYTHEIRFELLOWEMPLOYEESEACHLEVELOFCULTUREHASATENDENCYTOINFLUENCETHEOTHERKOTTERANDHESKETT,1992,P4THESEDEFINITIONSOUTLINESOMEOFTHECOMMONKEYELEMENTSTHATAPPEARINMANYOFTHEDEFINITIONSPROPOSEDFORORGANISATIONALCULTUREFIRST,ORGANISATIONALCULTUREISASHAREDPHENOMENONSEETICHY,1982PFEFFER,1981W
14、ILKINSANDOUCHI,1983CULTURE,INTHISSENSE,ISALEARNEDPRODUCTOFGROUPEXPERIENCEANDIS,THEREFORE,ONLYTOBEFOUNDWHERETHEREISADEFINABLEGROUPWITHASIGNIFICANTHISTORYTHEGROUPDOESNOTNECESSARILYHAVETOBEAWHOLECOMPANYCOMPANIESCANHAVEMULTIPLECULTURESKOTTERANDHESKETT,1992ORSUBCULTURESWILSON,1997USUALLYASSOCIATEDWITHDIF
15、FERENTFUNCTIONALORGEOGRAPHICGROUPINGSSECOND,THEMAJORITYOFAUTHORS,WITHTHEEXCEPTIONOFSCHEIN1991,BELIEVETHATTHEREARETWOLEVELSOFCULTURE,THEVISIBLELEVELANDTHEDEEPER,LESSVISIBLELEVELSCHEINS1990VIEWISTHATTHETERMCULTURESHOULDONLYRELATETOTHEDEEPERLESSVISIBLELEVEL,ALTHOUGHHEDOESUSEVISIBLEEVIDENCETOUNDERSTANDA
16、NDDESCRIBEDIFFERENTCULTURESTHEVISIBLEASPECTSENCOMPASSBEHAVIOURPATTERNS,THEPHYSICALANDSOCIALENVIRONMENTANDTHEWRITTENANDSPOKENLANGUAGEUSEDBYTHEGROUPMANYOFTHESEHAVEBEENRESEARCHEDUSINGASEMIOTICAPPROACHBYRESEARCHERSSUCHASBARLEY1983,MANNING1979ANDVANMAANEN1977THEDEEPER,LESSVISIBLELEVELOFCULTURERELATESTOTH
17、EGROUPSVALUESANDWHATSCHEIN1991CALLSTHEIRBASICASSUMPTIONSTHESHAREDVALUESCONSISTOFTHEGOALSANDCONCERNSTHATSHAPEAGROUPSSENSEOFWHATOUGHTTOBETHESENOTIONS,ABOUTACCEPTABLENORMS,VALUESANDBEHAVIOUR,CANVARYGREATLYINDIFFERENTGROUPSINSOMESETTINGSPEOPLECAREDEEPLYABOUTMONEY,INOTHERSABOUTCUSTOMERWELLBEINGOREMPLOYEE
18、WELLBEINGFROMAMARKETINGPERSPECTIVE,SOMEOFTHESEVALUESMAYREMAINCONSCIOUSANDMAYBEEXPLICITLYSTATEDINACOMPANYSMISSIONSTATEMENTASTHEDOMINANTVALUESOFTHEORGANISATIONDEALANDKENNEDY,1982HOWEVER,IFTHESEVALUESARENOTBASEDONPRIORCULTURALLEARNINGTHEYMAYALSOCOMETOBESEENONLYASWHATARGYRISANDSCHON1978HAVECALLEDESPOUSE
19、DVALUES,WHICHPREDICTWHATPEOPLEWILLSAYINAVARIETYOFSITUATIONSBUTWHICHMAYBEOUTOFLINEWITHWHATTHEYWILLACTUALLYDOINSITUATIONSWHERETHOSEVALUESSHOULDBEOPERATINGTHEREFORETHECOMPANYSCORPORATEMARKETINGACTIVITYMAYSAYSOMETHINGABOUTCOMMITMENTTOSERVINGTHECUSTOMER,BUTITSRECORDINTHATREGARDMAYCONTRADICTWHATITSAYSTHER
20、EFORETHEUNDERLYINGVALUES,ASSUMPTIONSANDBELIEFSOFORGANISATIONALCULTUREAREMORETHANSIMPLYSTRATEGICPRIORITIESANDGOALSTHETHIRDELEMENTRELATESTOTHEMANNERINWHICHNEWMEMBERSLEARNTHECULTUREAPROCESSOFCULTURALSOCIALISATIONARISESINFORMALLYFROMTHEEXISTINGEMPLOYEESANDFORMALLYTHROUGHINDUCTIONTRAININGPROGRAMMESHARRIS
21、ONANDCARROLL1991EXPLAINEDTHATIFANINDIVIDUALENTERSANORGANISATIONWHEREEMPLOYEESWORKINANENVIRONMENTOFSTRONGGROUPANDPEERPRESSURE,THEINDIVIDUALADOPTSTHEEMPLOYEESNORMSWHEREASWHENTHEGROUPPRESSURESAREWEAK,THEINDIVIDUALISLIKELYTOACCEPTTHENORMSENCOURAGEDBYMANAGEMENTTHEREISTHEREFORENOGUARANTEETHATTHESERVICEPER
22、SONNELINTERACTINGWITHCUSTOMERSWILLADOPTORCOMMUNICATETHECONTENTOFTHEINTERNALCORPORATEMARKETINGMESSAGESFINALLY,ORGANISATIONALCULTURESTENDTOCHANGESLOWLYOVERTIMEKOTTERANDHESKETT1992EXPLAINEDTHATCULTUREEVOLVESASARESULTOFTHETURNOVEROFGROUPMEMBERS,CHANGESINTHECOMPANYSMARKETENVIRONMENTANDGENERALCHANGESINSOC
23、IETYWILKINSANDOUCHI1983QUOTEDANUMBEROFEXAMPLESOFORGANISATIONSCLAIMINGTOEXPERIENCEGREATDISTRESSBECAUSETHECULTURECOULDNOTBECHANGEDORBECAUSEITSMEMBERSWOULDNOTCHANGEFASTENOUGHDEVELOPINGTHESEELEMENTSINTOADEFINITIONRESULTSINORGANISATIONALCULTUREBEINGDEFINEDASTHEVISIBLEANDLESSVISIBLENORMS,VALUESANDBEHAVIOU
24、RTHATARESHAREDBYAGROUPOFEMPLOYEESWHICHSHAPETHEGROUPSSENSEOFWHATISACCEPTABLEANDVALIDTHESEAREGENERALLYSLOWTOCHANGEANDNEWGROUPMEMBERSLEARNTHEMTHROUGHBOTHANINFORMALANDFORMALSOCIALIZATIONPROCESSTHENATUREOFORGANISATIONALCULTURETOFULLYUNDERSTANDTHECOMPLEXITYOFTHEORGANISATIONALCULTURELITERATURE,ITISNECESSAR
25、YTOEXPLORETHEVARIOUSPERSPECTIVESOFCULTURETHATHAVEBEENADOPTEDBYTHEORGANISATIONALBEHAVIOURISTSANDOTHERRESEARCHERSINTHISFIELDMARTINANDMEYERSON1988IDENTIFIEDTHEFOLLOWINGTHREEMAJORPERSPECTIVESINORGANISATIONALCULTURERESEARCH1THEINTEGRATIONPERSPECTIVETHISPORTRAYSASTRONGORDESIRABLECULTUREASONEWHERETHEREISOR
26、GANISATIONWIDECONSENSUSANDCONSISTENCYSCHEIN,1991BARLEY,1983DEALANDKENNEDY,1982PETERSANDWATERMAN,1982ESPOUSEDVALUESARECONSISTENTWITHFORMALPRACTICES,WHICHARECONSISTENTWITHINFORMALBELIEFS,NORMSANDATTITUDESCULTURALMEMBERSSHARETHESAMEVALUES,PROMOTINGASHAREDSENSEOFLOYALTYANDCOMMITMENTWHEREINCONSISTENCIES,
27、CONFLICTORSUBCULTURALDIFFERENTIATIONOCCUR,THISISPORTRAYEDASBEINGAWEAKORNEGATIVECULTURE2THEDIFFERENTIATIONPERSPECTIVETHISEMPHASISESTHATRATHERTHANCONSENSUSBEINGORGANISATIONWIDE,ITONLYOCCURSWITHINTHEBOUNDARIESOFASUBCULTUREATTHEORGANISATIONALLEVEL,DIFFERENTIATEDSUBCULTURESMAYCOEXISTINHARMONY,CONFLICTORI
28、NDIFFERENCETOEACHOTHERVANMAANEN1991,INHISSTUDYOFDISNEYLAND,FOUNDGROUPSOFEMPLOYEESWHOCONSIDEREDTHEMSELVESASBEINGDISTINCTTHESESUBCULTURESRELATEDTODIFFERENTJOBS,DIFFERENTLEVELSOFORGANISATIONALSTATUSGENDERANDCLASSCLAIMSOFHARMONYFROMMANAGEMENTMASKEDARANGEOFINCONSISTENCIESANDGROUPANTAGONISMSWILSON1997,INH
29、ISEXAMINATIONOFABANK,FOUNDANESTEDSETOFSUBCULTURES,THEDOMINANTINFLUENCEBEINGTHESERVICEDELIVERYTEAMFOLLOWEDBYTHEHIERARCHICALSTATUSOFTHEEMPLOYEESWHATISUNIQUEABOUTAGIVENORGANISATIONSCULTURE,THEN,ISTHEPARTICULARMIXOFSUBCULTURALDIFFERENCESWITHINANORGANISATIONSBOUNDARIES3THEFRAGMENTATIONPERSPECTIVETHISAPPR
30、OACHVIEWSAMBIGUITYASTHENORM,WITHCONSENSUSANDDISSENSIONCOEXISTINGINACONSTANTLYFLUCTUATINGPATTERNINFLUENCEDBYEVENTSANDSPECIFICAREASOFDECISIONMAKINGASSTATEDBYFROSTETAL1991,CONSENSUSFAILSTOCOALESCEONANORGANISATIONWIDEORSUBCULTURALBASIS,EXCEPTINTRANSIENT,ISSUESPECIFICWAYSRATHERTHANTHECLEARUNITYOFTHEINTEG
31、RATIONPERSPECTIVE,ORTHECLEARCONFLICTSOFTHEDIFFERENTIATIONVIEWPOINT,FRAGMENTATIONFOCUSESONTHATWHICHISUNCLEARMANYOFTHESTUDIESINORGANISATIONALCULTUREFOCUSONONLYONEOFTHESEPERSPECTIVES,ARGUINGWHETHERITANDITALONEISEVIDENTWITHINTHEORGANIZATIONSEETABLEIASANEXAMPLEOFTHIS,MEYERSON1991MAKESTHEPOINTTHATMUCHOFTH
32、EPOPULARLITERATUREDEALANDKENNEDY,1982PETERSANDWATERMAN,1982RESTSONTHEMISTAKENASSUMPTIONTHATORGANISATIONALCULTURECONSISTSOFSHAREDMEANINGSANDCOMMONALTIESTHATAREQUITEHOMOGENEOUS,MONOLITHICANDORGANISATIONWIDELITTLEORNOCONSIDERATIONISGIVENTOTHEPOTENTIALEXISTENCEOFSUBCULTURESORDISSENSIONUNLESSASANINDICATI
33、ONOFAWEAKCULTURETHEREAREALSOMAJORMETHODOLOGICALDIFFERENCESBETWEENTHETHREEPERSPECTIVESMUCHOFTHERESEARCHIDENTIFYINGCONSENSUSHASINVOLVEDSMALLSCALEQUALITATIVERESEARCHWHERETHEINTERVIEWSHAVEONLYBEENUNDERTAKENWITHTHESENIORLEVELSOFSELECTEDORGANISATIONSPETERSANDWATERMAN,1982DEALANDKENNEDY,1982BARLEY,1983SUCH
34、AMETHODOLOGICALAPPROACHHASBEENCRITICISEDFORPROVIDINGANINCOMPLETEPICTUREOFANORGANISATIONSCULTURE,REFLECTINGONLYWHATMANAGEMENTHOPEDTOSEEMARTINETAL,1983MOSTOFTHESTUDIESIDENTIFYINGADIFFERENTIATIONPERSPECTIVEHAVETENDEDTOBEQUANTITATIVE,INTERVIEWINGLARGENUMBERSOFSUBJECTS,USINGSOMEFORMOFSTANDARDISEDRESEARCH
35、INSTRUMENTMARTINANDFROST,1995THISAPPROACHTOCULTURALRESEARCHHASBEENCRITICISEDFORITSLACKOFDEPTHANDITSINABILITYTOASSESSTHEUNIQUECHARACTERISTICSOFANORGANISATIONSCHEIN,1991THEPROPONENTSOFTHEFRAGMENTATIONPERSPECTIVEHAVETENDEDTORESEARCHSPECIFICINCIDENTSORISSUES,SUCHASAIRTRAFFICCONTROLLERSOPERATINGONAFOGGYE
36、VENINGATATENERIFEAIRPORTWEICK,1991,ORPOLICYANALYSTSWRITINGREPORTSFELDMAN,1991MARTIN1992ANDWILSON1997ARGUEDTHATITISNOTTHECASETHATADVOCATESOFTHEVARIOUSPERSPECTIVESHAVESIMPLYSOUGHTANDFOUNDCULTURALCONTEXTSTHATFITBOTHTHEIRMETHODOLOGIESANDPRECONCEPTIONSINSTEAD,ANYORGANISATIONALCULTURECONTAINSELEMENTSCONGR
37、UENTWITHALLTHREEPERSPECTIVESMARTINANDMEYERSON1988ALSOARGUED,USINGDATAFROMAVARIETYOFCASESTUDIES,THATANYCULTURECONTAINSELEMENTSTHATCANBEUNDERSTOODONLYWHENALLTHREEPERSPECTIVESAREUSEDFROMASENIORMANAGERS/DIRECTORSPOINTOFVIEW,THEINTEGRATIONISTPERSPECTIVEMAYBECONGRUENTWITHAMANAGERSDESIRETOSEETHEIRVALUESAND
38、POLICIESSHAREDANDFOLLOWEDMIDDLEMANAGEMENTMAYWANTTODISTANCEITSELFFROMSENIORMANAGEMENTANDTHEREFORESUBCULTURESANDADIFFERENTIATIONPERSPECTIVEMAYBEMOREAPPROPRIATENEWCOMERSANDDISENCHANTEDSHOPFLOORWORKERSMAYFITINMOREWITHTHEFRAGMENTATIONPERSPECTIVETHEREFORE,WITHINACOMPANYTHEREMAYBEORGANISATIONWIDECONSENSUSO
39、NSOMEISSUES,CONSENSUSONLYWITHINCERTAINSUBCULTURESONOTHERISSUESANDANAMBIGUOUSSTATEONTHEREMAINDERSCHEIN,INFROSTETAL1991,SUGGESTEDTHATTHEREMAYBEACORESETOFIDEOLOGICALGUIDELINESWITHINANORGANISATIONTHATREQUIREAMINIMALCONSENSUSANDCONSISTENCY,OTHERWISEORGANISATIONSWOULDNOTFUNCTIONTHEREFORECONSISTENCY,CONSEN
40、SUS,HARMONYANDINTEGRATIONMAYOCCUR,BUTWITHINTHEMIDSTOFINCONSISTENCIES,AMBIGUITIES,CONFLICTS,DISRUPTIONANDDISSOLUTIONTHISCOMPLEXITYCANCAUSEAMAJORHEADACHEFORTHOSEINVOLVEDINCORPORATEMARKETINGANDCOMMUNICATIONSATLEASTASMUCHEFFORTNEEDSTOBEPUTINTOUNDERSTANDINGTHECULTURALDIMENSIONSWITHINTHEORGANISATIONASISCU
41、RRENTLYPUTINTORESEARCHINGTHEATTITUDESANDOPINIONSOFEXTERNALTARGETAUDIENCES译文理解企业文化和企业营销的含义艾伦M威尔森企业文化的定义文化的概念主要源于族群与国族在社会学、人类学和社会心理学这些学科的不同点的研究。文化地理学家哈格特给在各个学科中发展的文化的许多定义做了个总结1975,P238。文化的所有定义涉及文化的潜藏的特性，及文化通过看不见的手引导行为、思想和感情这一定义的三个方面需要进一步的解释。首先,行为的转移没有通过遗传学发生,相反的，通过社会成员之间的相互作用发生。第二，根据文化模式的理论例如。本尼迪克特,19
42、34年文化的各种要素倾向于形成相互关联的稳定的协调系统,因此任何文化模板都是耐用的,而且改变缓慢。第三,文化的观念和形象为可接受的行为提供了一个向导。这样,文化的许多方面体现在各种各样的规则中有些官方惩罚犯规的法律是受支持的；其他的是社会规范（如，关于穿什么衣服），被社会拒绝和被偏离者反对的。最初，在企业理论中，学者们把为文化概念作为一种隐喻观，开讨论会来研究企业，其中，编造的意义通过社会中的相互作用而表达。但当它成为的词汇的管理思想,越来越多的学者开始雇用文化为变量,而不是一种“根隐喻”,有些“探险队已经“相对发生了一些”是”。一些最早的文化概念的参考资料作为一种企业内部的各种变量，在企业发
43、展的文学中被发现雅克,1952哈里森,1972。几位研究人员开始把各种类型的文化例如。“强和弱”和一定的疗效的变量联系在一起，如性能和内部一体化EG迪尔和肯尼迪,1982威尔金斯和欧驰,1983因此,文化变成了一种机制来实现管理有效性和控制大麦孙俐，1988年；彼得斯和华特曼,1982。在这些发展阶段,大量的定义提出公司设置中的文化概念。其中的一些直接提取了人类学和其它根学科的定义,而其他的对企业部门很特殊。更基本的定义不帮助理解,而是简单地提供模糊的描述来取代术语文化。这些说明,范围从“企业的感觉”TAGIURI组织和LITWIN,1968年到“游戏规则”范MAANEN1976年,1979年
44、,RITTI和FUNKHOUSER,1982到这里的事情是如何完成的”庄士贤,1992。这些简单的描述与SCHEIN1991,SCHNEIDER1988ANDKOTTERANDHESKETT1992的更全面更实用的定义形成鲜明的对照。某一群人的基本假设,发明,发现或开发，学会处理自己外部适应和内部一体化的问题,表现好到足以被认为是有效的,因此,把它教给新成员作为正确的来感知、思考、与那些问题发生关联的方法刘兆明,1991,P9。文化是指一存在于组织的回报,支持和希望中的价值观,二环绕和/或支撑政策,实践，程序和企业的标准；（三）在职者共享的关于什么是企业的规矩和价值观这个问题的意义施耐德,19
45、88,P353。在更深的但不太显眼的水平，文化指的是被集团内的成员共享和那些即使集团成员关系变化也要永远追求的价值观。在更显眼的水平，新雇员机械的被鼓励去跟随他们的同事，这是文化代表的企业的行为模式或样式（卡特和海斯凯特，1992，P4）。这些定义略述某些共同的关键要素，它们出现在企业文化提出的许多定义中。首先，企业文化是种共享的现象见蒂凯,1982PFEFFER,1981威尔金斯和奥驰,1983文化,从这个意义上讲,是从集体经验中学习到的产物,因此,只能发现有有重要历史的可定义的集体。该组织不一定要是整个公司。公司可以有多种文化或亚文化群，它们通常与不同的功能或地理组合联系在一起。第二,大多
46、数作者,除了刘兆明1991,认为有两个层次的文化,可见的水平和更深,不易观察的水平。刘兆明1990的看法是术语文化应该只与“更深的“少水平有关,虽然他用明显地证明去理解和描述不同的文化。可见的方面包括行为模式，即自然和社会环境和集体使用的书面和口语。其中有许多都是用符号方法研究的，研究人员如大麦1983,曼宁1979年和范MAANEN1977年。文化的更深层的但不太显眼的水平，关系到该组织的价值观和刘兆明1991所谓的他们基本的假设。共享的价值观目标组成，它考虑塑造一个组织“应该”做某事的观念。这些想法,关于可接受的规范、价值观和行为,在不同群体可以有很大的差别在某些环境，人们关心钱,但其他人
47、考虑顾客的健康或员工的福利。从市场的角度看,某些价值可以保持清醒,并且在公司的使命可能被明确为“主导价值观的组织”处理和肯尼迪,1982。然而,如果这些值不基于先验文化学习，他们可能只看到ARGYRIS和SCHON所谓的1978“信奉的价值观”,它预测了人们在各种情况下会说什么,但是与那些价值观该被实践的情形中他们的表现会不一致。因此公司营销活动可能会说一些有关于承诺服务客户的话,但它在这方面记录可能跟它说的相反。因此,企业文化中隐含的价值观、假设和信念，不仅仅是简单的战略的优先次序和目标。第三个元素与新成员学习的文化的方式相关。文化社会主义化的过程中存在非正式的员工通过入职培训成为正式的哈里
48、逊先生和卡罗1991解释说,如果某个人进入一个组织，那里的雇员工作在团队强大和有同辈压力的环境中，他会接受同事的规则而当集团压力弱时,个人有可能接受鼓励规范管理。因此，没有保证将采取与客户的互动式服务或交流关于公司内部的市场营销信息。最终，随着时间的转移，企业文化将慢慢的发生变化。卡特和赫斯凯特1992解释说，文化的发展是集团成员的营业，公司市场环境变化和一般社会变迁的结果。威金斯和欧驰引证大量的企业的例子，声明要经历巨大的危难，因为文化不会改变或者成员不会足够快的改变。有效的,有根据的,合法的,正当的把这些元素发展成定义的那样的结果是，文化被定义为可见的和不宜见的规范，价值观和行为，它们被一
49、群定义什么是企业可接受的并有效的事物的员工共享。这些一般变得很慢，并且新的集团成员会通过正式的和非正式的组织程序来学习。企业文化的本质为了充分理解企业文化的复杂性，有必要探究该领域得企业行为主义者和其他研究者所采取的文化的各种角度。马丁和梅耶松定义了以下三种为企业文化研究的主要视角1、集成的角度这反应了一种强烈的或有吸引力的文化，它是企业广泛的共识和一致性。刘兆明,1991,大麦,1983交易和肯尼迪,彼得斯1982年,美国华特曼,1982赞成价值观是由正式的实践组成的，而实践又由非正式的信念，规范和态度组成。文化中的成员分享同一种价值观，促成了忠诚的共同感受。矛盾、冲突或亚文化群出现,这是被描绘成较弱的或负面的文化。2、分化的角度这强调,不是文化的广泛一致性,而是只发生在亚文化的边界。在企业水平上,分化亚文化群可以和谐、冲突或漠视中共存。范马阿门1991,在迪斯尼乐园的研究中,发现成群的员工认为自己是与众不同的。这些亚文化与不同的工作,不同的企业地位、性别和阶层相关。管理的和谐的声明，标志着矛盾和集团对立的问题的升华。威尔逊，在他检验银行时发现了一个嵌套的亚文化群，主要的影响成为被按地位等级划分的员工跟踪的服务车队。给定的企业文化的特别之处在哪里呢是存在于企业边缘的特定的混合的亚文化群的不同点。3、分裂
