1、标题RETHINKINGGREENCONSUMERISM原文OVERTHEPASTDECADE,ONEPOPULARTROPICALCONSERVATIONEFFORTHASBEENTOENCOURAGECONSUMERSTOPAYMOREFORPRODUCTSTHATARECULTIVATEDORHARVESTEDINECOLOGICALLYSENSITIVEWAYSMYRIADINTERNATIONALDEVELOPMENTPROJECTSHAVEPROMOTEDTHESESOCALLEDSUSTAINABLEPRACTICESINFORESTSANDFARMSAROUNDTHEWORLD
2、ORDINARYCITIZENSINTHEUSANDEUROPEPARTICIPATEBYCHOOSINGTOBUYTIMBER,COFFEEANDOTHERAGRICULTURALGOODSTHATARECERTIFIEDASHAVINGMETSUCHSPECIALSTANDARDSDURINGPRODUCTIONONEOFTHEBESTKNOWNOFTHESECERTIFIED,OR“GREEN,“PRODUCTSISSHADEGROWNCOFFEEBEANS,WHICHARECULTIVATEDINTHESHADYFORESTUNDERSTORYRATHERTHANINSUNNYFIEL
3、DSWHEREALLTHETREESHAVEBEENCUTDOWN。EFFORTSTODEVELOPGREENPRODUCTSDESERVESUPPORTANDPRAISEBUTINTHECONTEXTOFTHEGLOBALECONOMY,SUSTAINABLEAGRICULTUREANDCONSUMERACTIONSALONEWILLNOTBEENOUGHTOCONSERVETHEPLANTSANDANIMALSTHATAREMOSTTHREATENEDBYDEFORESTATIONWEBELIEVETHATABOLDNEWAPPROACH,WHICHWECALLCONSERVATIONCO
4、NCESSIONS,PROVIDESAPOTENTIALLYPOWERFULWAYTOEXPANDTHEGREENMARKETFROMITSPRESENTDEPENDENCEONPRODUCTSTOTHEBROADERNOTIONOFGREENSERVICESTHEOPPORTUNITYTOPURCHASEBIODIVERSITYPRESERVATIONDIRECTLYTHEFEASIBILITYOFTHISSTRATEGYRELIESONECONOMICSHUGETRACTSOFPUBLICFORESTINTHEDEVELOPINGWORLDAREBEINGLEASEDFORLESSTHAN
5、1PERHECTAREAYEARATTHOSEPRICES,CONSERVATIONORGANIZATIONS,WHICHHAVELONGDEMONSTRATEDAWILLINGNESSTOPAYFORTHEPRESERVATIONOFBIODIVERSITY,CANAFFORDTOOUTBIDCOMPETITORSFORLANDLEASESANDTOCOMPENSATELOCALPEOPLETOMANAGETHEINTACTECOSYSTEMSTHESEAGREEMENTSARELEGALLYANDECONOMICALLYNODIFFERENTFROMLOGGINGCONTRACTSORAN
6、YOTHERBUSINESSDEALTHATGRANTSCONTROLOVERNATURALRESOURCESTOAPARTICULARGROUPINDEED,THEINCOMETHATDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESCANGENERATEINTHISWAYISEQUIVALENTTO,ANDOFTENMORESTABLETHAN,WHATTHEYCOULDEARNTHROUGHTHEVOLATILEINTERNATIONALMARKETSFORTIMBERANDAGRICULTURALGOODSNOOTHERCHOICESONEOFTHEGREATESTADVANTAGESOFCONS
7、ERVATIONCONCESSIONSISTHATTHEYDISPELTHENOTIONTHATHABITATDESTRUCTIONISINEVITABLEIFECOSYSTEMSARETOGENERATEFINANCIALBENEFITSDURINGASTUDYOFCOCOAECONOMICSINGHANAINTHESPRINGOF2000,ANOFFICIALINTHATCOUNTRYSDEPARTMENTOFFORESTRYEXPLAINEDTOONEOFOURRESEARCHPARTNERS,EDUARDNIESTEN,THATGHANASGOVERNMENTCANNOTBEEXPEC
8、TEDTOSETASIDEMORETHANTHE20PERCENTOFITSPRIZEDHIGHCANOPYFORESTZONETHATISALREADYPROTECTEDBYNATIONALLAWTHERESTMUSTBEUSEDFORECONOMICPROGRESS,THEOFFICIALSAIDTHISPESSIMISTICSENTIMENTISWIDESPREADAMONGGOVERNMENTSANDRESIDENTSOFMANYDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES,WHEREECONOMICPLANNINGOFTENINCLUDESRAPIDGROWTHOFTHEPRODUCTIO
9、NOFAGRICULTURALCOMMODITIES,ESPECIALLYAFTERLOGGINGOPERATIONSHAVECLEAREDTHELANDTHESEACTIVITIESREPRESENTANATTRACTIVEANDPERHAPSTHEONLYDEVELOPMENTOPTIONINTROPICALCOUNTRIES,WHICHTENDTOHAVEANABUNDANCEOFLANDANDUNSKILLEDLABORBUTINSUFFICIENTCAPITALTOFINANCEMORECOSTLYENDEAVORS,SUCHASINDUSTRYTOEXAMINETHISISSUEM
10、ORECLOSELY,WEFORMEDARESEARCHTEAMWITHSIXOTHERINVESTIGATORSATCONSERVATIONINTERNATIONALSCENTERFORAPPLIEDBIODIVERSITYSCIENCEINWASHINGTON,DCOURAIMWASTOSTUDYAGRICULTURALCOMMODITIESTHATAREPRODUCEDINAREASDESIGNATEDBYECOLOGISTSASTHEWORLDSRICHESTANDMOSTTHREATENEDINTERMSOFBIODIVERSITYSEEMAPABOVETHESE25SOCALLED
11、BIODIVERSITYHOTSPOTS,WHICHENCOMPASSONLY14PERCENTOFTHEEARTHSLANDSURFACE,HAVELOSTATLEAST70PERCENTOFTHEIRPRIMARYVEGETATIONTHEYAREALSOPRIMEHABITATSFOR44PERCENTOFALLVASCULARPLANTSPECIESAND35PERCENTOFALLLANDDWELLINGVERTEBRATESPECIESBASEDONTHISTHREEYEARSTUDY,OURTEAMDETERMINEDTHATINADDITIONTOLOGGINGFORTIMBE
12、R,NATURALHABITATDESTRUCTIONISRAPIDANDEXTENSIVETOACCOMMODATETHEPRODUCTIONOFFIVEAGRICULTURALCOMMODITIESBEEF,SOYBEANS,PALMOIL,COFFEEANDCOCOAINTHE1980STHEEXPANSIONOFCATTLERANCHESINSOUTHAMERICAWASWIDELYPUBLICIZEDTHISACTIVITYACCOUNTEDFOR44PERCENTOFDEFORESTATIONONTHECONTINENTDURINGTHATDECADETODAYONEOFTHEGR
13、EATESTTHREATSTOSOUTHAMERICASTROPICALBIODIVERSITYISTHEEXPANDINGPRODUCTIONOFSOYBEANS,MOSTOFWHICHGOESTOFEEDLIVESTOCKSINCETHE1970SSOYBEANCULTIVATIONHASGROWNBY13MILLIONHECTARESINBRAZILALONETHEFASTESTEXPANSIONOFANYAGRICULTURALPRODUCTINTHETROPICSKNOWNTODATEGOVERNMENTSUBSIDIESHAVEALLOWEDTHISACTIVITYTOMOVEIN
14、TOAREASNEVERBEFORETOUCHEDBYAGRICULTUREINNEIGHBORINGBOLIVIA,THEAREADEVOTEDTOTHISCROPHASGROWNBYANAVERAGEOFNEARLY35PERCENTAYEARSINCETHEMID1960SANDISFASTAPPROACHINGONEMILLIONHECTARESELSEWHERENATURALFORESTSAREBEINGCONVERTEDATANALARMINGRATETOCULTIVATIONOFTHEOTHERTHREECROPSINOURSTUDYSPREADUBIQUITOUSLYAROUN
15、DTHEWORLDSBIODIVERSITYHOTSPOTSARECOFFEEANDCOCOA,OCCUPYING11ANDEIGHTMILLIONHECTARES,RESPECTIVELYTHEIRCULTIVATIONHASREPLACEDASMUCHAS80PERCENTOFIVORYCOASTSORIGINALFORESTSMALAYSIALEADSTHEPRODUCTIONOFPALMOIL,CULTIVATINGTHREEMILLIONHECTARESOUTOFTHETOTALSIXMILLIONDEVOTEDTOTHISCOMMODITYGLOBALLYINDONESIA,WHI
16、CHCURRENTLYGROWSOILPALMON25MILLIONHECTARES,HASVOWEDTOOVERTAKEITSNEIGHBORASTHEWORLDSLEADINGPRODUCERBYPLANTINGTHE15MILLIONADDITIONALHECTARESTHATTHEGOVERNMENTHASALREADYSLATEDFOROILPALMPLANTATIONSCERTAINLYTHEINTENTIONOFPEOPLEWHOCONVERTBIOLOGICALLYDIVERSEECOSYSTEMSTOAGRICULTUREORLOGGEDFORESTSISTOIMPROVET
17、HEIRECONOMICLOTINLIFETHESADIRONYISTHATTHESEPROSPECTSAREOFTENUNRELIABLEWHENCOUNTRIESCHOOSELOGGINGANDAGRICULTUREFORLACKOFBETTERECONOMICOPTIONS,THEYOFTENARENOTCOMPETITIVEINGLOBALMARKETSINDEED,THEVERYNATUREOFEXPORTCOMMODITYMARKETSISTHATMANYPRODUCERSARENOTPROFITABLEFORYEARSATATIMEBECAUSEOFCHRONICOVERSUPP
18、LYTHEANNUALHARVESTOFCOCOAANDACCUMULATEDSTOCKS,FOREXAMPLE,EXCEEDEDCONSUMPTIONBYBETWEEN30AND70PERCENTEACHYEARFROM1971TO1999CULTIVATORSINWESTAFRICARECENTLYRESORTEDTOBURNINGTHEIRCROPSINADESPERATEPROTESTOFTHESITUATIONANOTHERSTRIKINGEXAMPLEPLAYEDOUTINBOLIVIA,WHEREIN1996THEIMPOSITIONOFANEWTAXOF1PERHECTAREO
19、NTHECOUNTRYS22MILLIONHECTARESOFTIMBERCONCESSIONSRESULTEDINNEARLY17MILLIONHECTARESBEINGABANDONEDBYLOGGERSINOTHERWORDS,THEPOTENTIALNETRETURNSFORLOGGINGTHESEFORESTSWERESOLOWTHATANADDITIONALCOSTOF1PERHECTAREPERYEARWASENOUGHTOMAKEMOSTCOMPANIESAVOIDTHESEINVESTMENTSNOMATTERTHELEVELOFECONOMICPAYOFF,ALLTHESE
20、SITUATIONSCANPORTENDWIDESPREAD,IRREVERSIBLELOSSOFBIODIVERSITYTHECONCEPTOFSUSTAINABLEFORESTRYANDFARMINGPRACTICESWASBORNOFTHISDILEMMATHENEEDTOPROMOTEECONOMICDEVELOPMENTWHILEMITIGATINGITSPROBABLECOURSEOFECOLOGICALDESTRUCTIONBUTOURRECENTSTUDIESHAVECONVINCEDUSTHATATTEMPTINGTOGIVEGREENCONSUMERSBROADERACCE
21、SSTOAGRICULTURALMARKETSISNOTNECESSARILYAWINNINGOPTIONFORECONOMICDEVELOPMENTORCONSERVATIONINMANYSETTINGSTHESHAREOFTHEGLOBALAGRICULTURALMARKETTHATISOCCUPIEDBYGREENGOODSISLARGELYLIMITEDTOTHOSECONSUMERSINEUROPEANDTHEUSWHOHAVETHEMONEYFOR,ANDANINTERESTIN,PURCHASINGSUCHPRODUCTSTHISREALITYEFFECTIVELYELIMINA
22、TESTHEPOTENTIALFORCURTAILINGDEFORESTATIONRELATEDTOMANYAGRICULTURALPRODUCTSFOREXAMPLE,SOYBEANSFROMBRAZILTHATAREEATENBYLIVESTOCK,OILPALMININDONESIATHATISCULTIVATEDFORDOMESTICCONSUMPTION,ANDTREESINMADAGASCARTHATAREBURNEDLOCALLYASFUELSEEBOXONPAGE91EVENWHENCERTIFIEDGOODSSUCHASCOFFEE,TIMBERANDBEEFDOREACHW
23、EALTHYCONSUMERS,THEEFFECTISNOTASSIGNIFICANTASSOMEMAYTHINKLESSTHAN1PERCENTOFTHECOFFEEIMPORTEDINTOTHEUSISCERTIFIEDFORSOCIALORECOLOGICALREASONSWHATISMORE,MOSTOFTHELANDNEWLYDEVOTEDTOGROWINGCOFFEEBEANSISFORROBUSTA,USUALLYSOLDINDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESASINSTANTCOFFEE,RATHERTHANARABICA,THEPRODUCTSOLDMOSTCOMMONL
24、YINCAFESOFTHEINDUSTRIALWORLDGREENTIMBERFARESNOBETTEREVENIFEVERYBOARDFOOTOFWOODIMPORTEDINTOTHEUSANDEUROPEFROMTROPICALCOUNTRIESWERECERTIFIED,ITWOULDMAKEUPONLY65PERCENTOFTOTALPRODUCTIONFROMTHETROPICSTHERESTISBEINGSOLDINREGIONSWHERECONSUMERSHAVELITTLEORNOINTERESTINCERTIFIEDTIMBERSIMILARLY,ORGANICALLYPRO
25、DUCEDBEEFISGROWINGINPOPULARITYININDUSTRIALCOUNTRIESBUTINTERNATIONALTRADEINBEEFREPRESENTSONLYBETWEEN1AND3PERCENTOFGLOBALPRODUCTIONINTHEDEVELOPINGWORLD,BEEFPRODUCTIONISGROWINGATMORETHAN3PERCENTAYEAR,PRIMARILYTOSERVEDOMESTICMARKETSMARKETINGGREENSERVICESTHEMOREWESTUDIEDTHECONSERVATIONIMPACTSOFTIMBERANDA
26、GRICULTURALCOMMODITYMARKETS,THEMORECONVINCEDWEBECAMETHATATTEMPTINGTOSUPPORTTHESEMARKETSTHROUGHPRICEPREMIUMSFORGREENPRODUCTSISNOTTHEONLYWAYTOENCOURAGECONSERVATIONTHISSITUATIONSEEMEDESPECIALLYTRAGICWHENWECONSIDEREDTHEHIGHDEMANDFORBIODIVERSITYPROTECTIONAMONGTHEINTERNATIONALCOMMUNITYACOMMONMISPERCEPTION
27、ISTHATCONSERVATIONCANNOTCOMPETEDIRECTLYWITHMOSTOTHERECONOMICUSESOFNATURALRESOURCESINREALITY,THECONSERVATIONECONOMYISQUITELARGETHEINTERNATIONALCOMMUNITYINCLUDINGGOVERNMENTS,MULTILATERALDEVELOPMENTBANKSANDCONSERVATIONGROUPSSPENDSATLEASTHALFABILLIONDOLLARSANNUALLYONBIODIVERSITYCONSERVATIONINTHETROPICST
28、HISFIGUREISONLYASMALLFRACTIONOFTHEGLOBALBUDGETTHATCOULDBEDIRECTEDTOBIODIVERSITYRICHCOUNTRIESIFBETTERINVESTMENTMECHANISMSEXISTEDIN1999ANEXAMPLEFROMBOLIVIASHOWEDUSJUSTHOWFARTHESEFINANCIALRESOURCESCANGOTHATYEARCONSERVATIONINTERNATIONALPAIDALOGGINGCOMPANY100,000TORETIREITS45,000HECTARETIMBERCONCESSIONAS
29、PARTOFTHEDEAL,THEBOLIVIANGOVERNMENTAGREEDTOINTEGRATETHEAREAINTOADJACENTMADIDINATIONALPARKBOTTOMLINEANAREATHREETIMESTHESIZEOFWASHINGTON,DC,RECEIVEDPERMANENTPROTECTIONFORLESSTHANTHEAVERAGEPRICEOFAHOUSEINTHATCITYWORKINGWITHTIMBERCONCESSIONSOROTHERLEASEARRANGEMENTSENABLESCONSERVATIONISTSTOAVOIDTHEPROBLE
30、MSASSOCIATEDWITHPURCHASINGLANDOUTRIGHTSOMEGOVERNMENTSBALKATTHEIDEAOFFOREIGNINVESTORSTAKINGPERMANENTCONTROLOFPARTSOFTHEIRTERRITORIES,ESPECIALLYIFTHEYARETRYINGTOENSUREARENEWABLESTREAMOFREVENUEFROMTHEIRNATURALRESOURCESFORTHESAMEREASONS,INCORPORATINGLANDINTONATIONALPARKSASCONSERVATIONISTSWEREABLETOCONVI
31、NCETHEBOLIVIANGOVERNMENTTODOISALSOARAREOPPORTUNITYTHATISWHYTHEBOLIVIAEXPERIENCE,ANDOTHERSLIKEIT,INSPIREDUSTOTAKEADVANTAGEOFTHELOWPRICESFORWHICHMILLIONSOFHECTARESOFFORESTCOULDBELEASEDINTHETROPICSWEDEVELOPEDTHECONSERVATIONCONCESSIONAPPROACHTOLEASINGLANDWITHSEVERALMAJORGOALSINMINDSEEBOXONOPPOSITEPAGEMO
32、STIMPORTANT,PERHAPS,WASTHATAPORTIONOFTHECONCESSIONPAYMENTSWOULDBEDIRECTEDTOLOCALCOMMUNITIESTOSUPPORTEMPLOYMENTANDSOCIALSERVICESINTHESAMEWAYTHATALOGGINGCOMPANYWOULDPAYLOCALRESIDENTSWAGESANDBENEFITSTOWORKINTHEMILLS,THEFINANCIEROFTHECONSERVATIONCONCESSIONWOULDHIRETHEMTOPRESERVETHEFORESTONCEWEHADDEVELOP
33、EDACLEARSETOFCRITERIAFORTHISNEWFANGLEDGREENSERVICESMARKET,WESETOFFTOCREATEASERIESOFPILOTCONSERVATIONCONCESSIONSAMONGTHEFIRSTCOUNTRIESWEVISITED,EARLYIN2000,WASPERUTHEREWEPLANNEDTOCOMPETEFORPARTOFTHE800,000HECTARESOFAMAZONFORESTTHATTHEGOVERNMENTWASPUTTINGUPFORLEASEINANINTERNATIONALAUCTIONWHATTRANSPIRE
34、DDURINGOURNEGOTIATIONSCONFIRMEDOURTHEORYTHATTHEECONOMICVALUEOFFORESTRESOURCESINPERUANDMANYOTHERREGIONSOFTHEWORLDISPOORATBESTINDEED,THEAUCTIONBEGANWITHAPROPOSEDMINIMUMBIDOFBETWEEN1AND4PERHECTAREAYEARANDINVOLVEDFORESTRYCOMPANIESFROMEUROPEANDNORTHANDSOUTHAMERICAINADDITIONTOUSINAMATTEROFMONTHS,HOWEVER,T
35、HEAUCTIONWASCALLEDOFFBECAUSETHEOTHERPOTENTIALBIDDERSLOSTINTERESTINTHESECONCESSIONS,PRESUMABLYBECAUSETHEBASEPRICEWASTOOHIGHTHEFATEOFTHATPARTICULARFORESTREMAINSTOBEDETERMINED,BUTWEHADPLANTEDASEEDTHATTOOKROOTINTHEFERTILEGROUNDPREPAREDBYTHEPERUVIANCONSERVATIONCOMMUNITYPERUHADBEENUNDERGOINGTHEFINALREVISI
36、ONSOFITSFORESTANDWILDLIFELAW,APROCESSINWHICHSEVERALCONSERVATIONGROUPSWERESEEKINGALTERNATIVESTOLOGGINGLEASESFORPERUSFORESTSINAPRIL2001THEGOVERNMENTCHOSETOINCLUDECONSERVATIONCONCESSIONSASALEGALUSEOFITS67MILLIONHECTARESOFPUBLICFORESTWEHADENTEREDTHEORIGINALBIDDINGARENAWITHOUTKNOWINGFORCERTAINTHATWEWOULD
37、BEALLOWEDTOCOMPETE,SOTHISWASGOODNEWSATAROUNDTHATTIME,APERUVIANCONSERVATIONGROUP,THEAMAZONCONSERVATIONASSOCIATION,APPROACHEDUSTHEGROUPSMEMBERSWANTEDTOUSEACONSERVATIONCONCESSIONTOSECURECRITICALNATURALHABITATWHERETHEYWERESETTINGUPANECOLOGICALRESEARCHSTATIONUNDERTHENEWPERUVIANLAW,CONCESSIONSCOULDBEACQUI
38、REDBYAPPLYINGFORSPECIFICAREASOFINTERESTTOTHEBIDDERWELEAPEDATTHECHANCETOHELPLAUNCHPERUSFIRSTCONSERVATIONCONCESSIONTHANKSTOTHESCIENTIFICANDCOMMUNITYWORKOFTHEAMAZONCONSERVATIONASSOCIATION,LEGALADVICEFROMTHEPERUVIANENVIRONMENTALLAWSOCIETYSPDA,ASSISTANCEFROMINDEPENDENTENVIRONMENTALCONSULTANTENRIQUETOLEDO
39、,ANDTHEENTHUSIASTICSUPPORTOFPERUSMINISTEROFAGRICULTURE,CARLOSAMATYLEON,PERUESTABLISHEDTHELOSAMIGOSCONSERVATIONCONCESSIONINJULY2001THEAGREEMENTCENTEREDONARENEWABLE40YEARLEASEFORTHECONSERVATIONMANAGEMENTANDSTUDYOF130,000HECTARESOFTROPICALFORESTTHISLANDFORMSPARTOFANECOLOGICALCORRIDORTHATLINKSMANUANDBAH
40、UAJASONENENATIONALPARKSINPERUANDPROTECTSMANYOFTHATCOUNTRYS25,000SPECIESOFFLORAAND1,700SPECIESOFBIRDSCATCHINGONOVERTHECOURSEOFOURLOSARNIGOSNEGOTIATIONS,WEALSOCONDUCTEDDISCUSSIONSFORPILOTPROJECTSINGUYANAANDGUATEMALAINSEPTEMBER2000THEGOVERNMENTOFGUYANAISSUEDTOCONSERVATIONINTERNATIONALANEXPLORATORYPERMI
41、TFORACONSERVATIONCONCESSIONOFAPPROXIMATELY80,000HECTARESINTHESOUTHERNPARTOFTHECOUNTRYDURINGTHESUBSEQUENTMONTHS,WEHAVEWORKEDWITHFORESTCOMMISSIONOFFICIALSTONEGOTIATETHETERMSOFARENEWABLE25YEARCONTRACTWEHOPETOCONCLUDETHEDEALFORTHISUNINHABITEDAREAOFFORESTLATERTHISYEARINGUATEMALATHENATIONALGOVERNMENTHADAL
42、READYISSUEDTIMBERCONCESSIONSWITHINTHECOUNTRYSTWOMILLIONHECTAREMAYABIOSPHERERESERVETOLOCALCOMMUNITIESTHESEPEOPLE,WHOLIVEWITHINTHERESERVESMULTIPLEUSEZONE,WHERELOGGINGANDOTHERECONOMICACTIVITIESAREPERMITTED,ARECURRENTLYPRODUCINGCERTIFIEDGREENTIMBERFROMTHEIRFORESTSTWOCOMMUNITIES,HOWEVER,HAVEPROPOSEDTOFOR
43、GOLOGGINGANDINSTEADLEASESTANDINGTREESANDTHEOBLIGATIONTOPROTECTTHEECOSYSTEMINWHICHTHEYRESIDETOCONSERVATIONISTSTHECOMMUNITIES,TOGETHERREPRESENTINGABOUT110HOUSEHOLDS,COULDUSETHEIRNEWREVENUESTREAMFROMTHEPROPOSEDCONCESSIONDEALTOPAYSALARIESFORCONSERVATIONMANAGERS,TOINVESTINPROJECTSSUCHASGUIDINGTOURISTSTON
44、EARBYARCHAEOLOGICALSITES,ANDTOPROVIDECOMMUNITYSOCIALSERVICESSUCHASEDUCATIONANDHEALTHCARETHEPROPOSEDCONCESSIONS,WHICHWOULDPRESERVEBOTHPRISTINEFORESTANDAWEALTHOFMAYANRUINS,SPANAPPROXIMATELY75,000HECTARESBORDERINGANATIONALPARKSEEBOXONOPPOSITEPAGETHEGUATEMALAANDGUYANADEALS,BOTHDEVELOPEDANDFINANCEDBYCONS
45、ERVATIONINTERNATIONALSCENTERFORAPPLIEDBIODIVERSITYSCIENCEANDTHEGLOBALCONSERVATIONFUND,REPRESENTTWOVERYDIFFERENTSETTINGSFORCONCESSIONSATMANYTURNSINOURNEGOTIATIONSOVERTHEPASTTWOYEARS,WEHAVEFACEDSCRUTINYANDSKEPTICISMABOUTCONSERVATIONCONCESSIONS,FROMGOVERNMENTSANDCONSERVATIONISTSALIKEBUTTHEBOLDACTIONSTH
46、ATSOMEGOVERNMENTS,TOGETHERWITHSIGNIFICANTFINANCIALSUPPORTERS,HAVETAKENTOADOPTTHISAPPROACHINDICATETHATITISVIABLEBOTHASANECONOMICALTERNATIVEANDASACONSERVATIONTOOLANDTHEIDEAISCATCHINGONLASTYEARWERECEIVEDAPHONECALLFROMAMANINECUADORWHOHADTRAVELEDSIXHOURSTOTHENEARESTINTERNATIONALPHONELINESOHECOULDASKABOUT
47、ESTABLISHINGACONSERVATIONCONCESSIONINHISCOASTALFORESTCOMMUNITYHALFWAYAROUNDTHEWORLDWESTRUCKUPAPARTNERSHIPWITHASMALLNONGOVERNMENTALORGANIZATIONININDONESIATHATISKEENTOEXPERIMENTWITHTHISCONCEPTASAWAYTOPROTECTTHATNATIONSFRAGILEMARINEECOSYSTEMSNOW,ALONGWITHOTHERCOLLEAGUES,WEARELOOKINGATTHEFEASIBILITYOFCO
48、NSERVATIONCONCESSIONSACROSSAFRICA,ASIAANDLATINAMERICA,ANDWEPREDICTTHATTHISAPPROACHWILLTRANSFERREADILYTOMANYAREASIFWEARERIGHT,CONSERVATIONCONCESSIONSMAYINDEEDBEABLETOBRINGTOLIFEAGLOBALMARKETFORGREENSERVICES出处JAREDHARDNERANDRICHARDRICEPHOTOGRAPHSBYPETEMCARTHURRETHINKINGGREENCONSUMERISMSCIENTIFICAMERIC
49、ANJHARDNERJGREENSCIENCE20081211,PP,358365标题绿色消费的反思译文在过去的十年中，一种流行的热带保护工作一直鼓励消费者在为此付出代价的是耕地或用生态敏感的方式收获产品。无数的国际发展项目，促进了这些森林和世界各地的农场所谓可持续的做法。在美国和欧洲的普通公民参与选择购买木材、咖啡和其他一些在生产过程中为符合标准的认证等特殊农产品。其中一种最广为人知的认证，也许是绿色，是树荫咖啡豆的产品，这是在阴暗的林下种植，而不是在那所有树木都被砍倒的“阳光明媚”领域。努力发展绿色产品，值得支持和好评。但在全球经济，可持续农业和消费者行动的范围内仅将不足以保护植物和森林砍伐是最受威胁的动物。我们相信，一个大胆的新方法，我们称之为“养护优惠”，它提供了一个潜在的强大的方式来扩大其到绿色服务的机会，保护生物多样性直接购买产品中存在的依赖更广泛的概念，绿色市场。这一战略的可行性依赖于经济学。巨额公共大片森林在发展中世界正在租用低于1每公顷每年。在这些价格，保护组织表现出愿意支付保护生物多样性，有能力竞标中击败竞争对手和土地租赁，以弥补地方的人来管理的完整的生态系统。这些协议在法律上和经济上没有记录合同或任何其他业务的协议，授予对自然资源的控制某一特定群体的不同。事实上，发展中国家的收入在这种方式可以显得更公平，而且往往更稳定
