1、原文GLOBALIZATIONANDTHEPROVISIONOFINCENTIVESINSIDETHEFIRMTHEEFFECTOFFOREIGNCOMPETITIONVICENTECUNAT,LONDONSCHOOLOFECONOMICSMARIAGUADALUPE,COLUMBIAUNIVERSITYANDCEPRTHISARTICLESTUDIESTHEEFFECTOFCHANGESINFOREIGNCOMPETITIONONTHESTRUCTUREOFCOMPENSATIONANDINCENTIVESOFUSEXECUTIVESWEFINDTHATIMPORTPENETRATIONIN
2、STRUMENTEDWITHEXCHANGERATESANDTARIFFSLEADSTOMOREINCENTIVEPROVISIONINAVARIETYOFWAYSFIRST,ITINCREASESTHESENSITIVITYOFPAYTOPERFORMANCESECOND,ITINCREASESWITHINFIRMPAYDIFFERENTIALSBETWEENEXECUTIVELEVELS,WITHCEOSTYPICALLYEXPERIENCINGTHELARGESTWAGEINCREASESFINALLY,HIGHERFOREIGNCOMPETITIONISALSOASSOCIATEDWI
3、THAHIGHERDEMANDFORTALENTTHESERESULTSSUGGESTTHATINCREASEDFOREIGNCOMPETITIONCANEXPLAINSOMEOFTHERECENTTRENDSINCOMPENSATIONSTRUCTURESIINTRODUCTIONTHESTRUCTUREOFWAGESANDCOMPENSATIONINTHEUNITEDSTATESCHANGEDSUBSTANTIALLYDURINGTHE1980SAND1990SEARNINGSINEQUALITYANDRETURNSTOSKILLINCREASED,WITHAPARTICULARLYDRA
4、MATICRISEINPAYATTHETOPOFTHEWAGEDISTRIBUTIONKATZANDAUTOR1999AUTOR,KATZ,ANDKEARNEY2006THEEXECUTIVELABORMARKETREPLICATEDTHETRENDSFORWORKERSINGENERAL,WITHINEQUALITYBETWEENEXECUTIVESANDJOBMOBILITYINCREASING,ANDCEOPAYGOINGUPDISPROPORTIONATELYFRYDMAN2005SIMULTANEOUSLY,FIRMSINCREASEDTHEIRUSEOFINCENTIVESANDP
5、ERFORMANCERELATEDPAYSUCHASPIECERATES,BONUSES,ANDSTOCKOPTIONSINTHEOVERALLCOMPENSATIONOFEXECUTIVESANDWORKERSMURPHY1999LEMIEUX,MACLEOD,ANDPARENT2009,SIGNIFICANTLYALTERINGTHESTRUCTUREOFPAYANDTHERELATIVEIMPORTANCEOFFIXEDVERSUSVARIABLEPAYTHISLASTFACTHASRECEIVEDMUCHLESSATTENTION,ANDTHEREISLIMITEDKNOWLEDGEO
6、FTHECAUSESBEHINDTHECHANGESININCENTIVECONTRACTSANDCOMPENSATIONSTRUCTURESINSIDEFIRMS1INTHISARTICLE,WESHOWTHATAMAJORFORCEBEHINDSOMEOFTHESECHANGESISTHEINCREASEINFOREIGNCOMPETITIONRESULTINGFROMREDUCTIONSINTRADEBARRIERSANDTHEGLOBALIZATIONOFECONOMICACTIVITYANUMBEROFTHEORETICALPAPERSHAVESHOWNTHATPRODUCTMARK
7、ETCOMPETITIONCANDIRECTLYAFFECTTHEPROVISIONOFINCENTIVESBYFIRMSINAPRINCIPALAGENTSETTINGBECAUSEOFITSIMPACTONPROFITSAND,THEREFORE,ONTHERETURNSTOEFFORTHERMALIN1992SCHMIDT1997RAITH2003THEGLOBALIZATIONOFECONOMICACTIVITYANDTRADEISASSOCIATEDWITHANUMBEROFPHENOMENAHIGHERIMPORTS,REDUCTIONSINTRADEBARRIERS,LOWERC
8、OSTSOFTRANSPORT,ANDINFORMATIONDIFFUSIONALLOFWHICHTENDTOINCREASETHEDEGREEOFCOMPETITIONTHATFIRMSFACE2WHILETHEREAREOTHERSOURCESOFINCREASEDPRODUCTMARKETCOMPETITION,INORDERTOIDENTIFYACLEARCAUSALEFFECTTHATISNOTCONFOUNDEDBYOVERALLTRENDS,WEFOCUSONAPARTICULARCHANNELTHROUGHWHICHCOMPETITIONMAYOPERATENAMELY,FOR
9、EIGNCOMPETITION,MEASUREDASTHEDEGREEOFIMPORTPENETRATIONFACEDBYUSFIRMSACOMMONPROBLEMWITHOTHERSTANDARDMEASURESOFCOMPETITIONSUCHASHERFINDAHLINDICESANDPRICECOSTMARGINSISTHATTHEYAREENDOGENOUSANDDIFFICULTTOMEASUREORINTERPRETSYSTEMATICALLYACROSSFIRMSOVERTIMEANDTHEIRLEVELSARENOTNECESSARILYINDICATIVEOFTHEDEGR
10、EEOFCOMPETITIONSCHMALENSEE1989IMPORTCOMPETITIONALLOWSUSTOOVERCOMESOMEOFTHESEPROBLEMSTOTHEEXTENTTHATITVARIESOVERTIMEANDACROSSINDUSTRIES,WECANASSESSHOWDIFFERENTUSMANUFACTURINGFIRMS,WITHDIFFERENTEVOLUTIONSINTHEIRTRADEEXPOSUREINTHE1990S,CHANGEDTHEINCENTIVESTRUCTURESTHEYOFFEREDTOTHEIREXECUTIVESFURTHERMOR
11、E,INORDERTOISOLATEFLUCTUATIONSINFOREIGNCOMPETITIONTHATAREEXOGENOUSTOTHEFIRMSINCENTIVEPOLICIESANDUNCORRELATEDWITHPOTENTIALOMITTEDVARIABLES,WEUSEIMPORTTARIFFSANDEXCHANGERATESASINSTRUMENTALVARIABLESCOMPENSATIONISMEASUREDUSINGAMATCHEDEMPLOYEREMPLOYEEPANELDATASETEXECUCOMPOFLARGEUSMANUFACTURINGFIRMSWITHFI
12、VEEXECUTIVESPERFIRMBETWEEN1992AND2000ITCONTAINSVERYDETAILEDINFORMATIONONBOTHFIRMCHARACTERISTICSANDEXECUTIVEPAY,PROVIDINGAFAIRLYCOMPREHENSIVEPICTUREOFINTERNALLABORMARKETSANDINCENTIVEPROVISIONONECANTRACKEXECUTIVESASTHEEXTENTOFFOREIGNCOMPETITIONFACEDBYTHEFIRMEVOLVESANDEVALUATEHOWINCENTIVESCHANGEOVERTIM
13、EANDACROSSINDUSTRIESALTHOUGHWERESTRICTTHEANALYSISTOCHANGESINIMPORTPENETRATIONINORDERTOBEABLETOIDENTIFYAPRECISECAUSALMECHANISM,THEDATASETALLOWSUSTOBEMOREGENERALREGARDINGTHEASPECTSOFCOMPENSATIONTHATWEANALYZEINCENTIVESTOEXERTEFFORTANDTOIMPROVETHEMANAGERSCONTRIBUTIONTOTHEPRODUCTIVITYOFTHEFIRMCANBEPROVID
14、EDINSEVERALWAYSSOMEAREEXPLICITANDCONTRACTUAL,SUCHASAGREEINGONABONUSORAPERFORMANCERELATEDPAYSCHEMEOTHERSAREIMPLICITWITHOUTANEXPLICITWRITTENCONTRACTANDENFORCEDONTHEBASISOFCOMMITMENTANDREPUTATIONTHESEINCLUDEDISCRETIONARYBONUSESORTHECOMMITMENTOFTHEFIRMTOAGIVENPROMOTIONSCHEMEFINALLY,SOMEINCENTIVESMAYNOTB
15、EPROVIDEDDIRECTLYBYFIRMSBUT,RATHER,AREIMPLICITINLABORMARKETCONDITIONSEG,THEGOODPERFORMANCEOFONEEXECUTIVEINAGIVENFIRMMAYLEADANOTHERFIRMTOOFFERTHISSAMEEXECUTIVEABETTERJOB4WERELATECHANGESINFOREIGNCOMPETITIONTOANUMBEROFWAGEANDLABORMARKETOUTCOMES,INCLUDINGFIXEDANDVARIABLEPAY,PERFORMANCEPAYSENSITIVITIES,A
16、NDWITHINFIRMWAGEDIFFERENTIALSBETWEENEXECUTIVERANKSFURTHERMORE,EXPLOITINGTHEPANELDIMENSIONOFTHEDATASET,WEAREALSOABLETOASSESSWHETHERFIRMSSEEKTOHIREMORE“ABLE”OR“TALENTED”EXECUTIVESASFOREIGNCOMPETITIONCHANGESWITHTALENTMEASUREDASTHEPERMANENTUNOBSERVEDCOMPONENTOFWAGESTHESEMEASURES,TAKENTOGETHER,GIVEUSAGOO
17、DDESCRIPTIONOFTHEWAGESTRUCTUREANDTHEPROVISIONOFINCENTIVESAMONGTOPEXECUTIVESOURMAINFINDINGISTHATHIGHERFOREIGNCOMPETITIONSUBSTANTIALLYCHANGESTHESTRUCTUREOFCOMPENSATIONITREDUCESTHELEVELOFNONPERFORMANCERELATEDPAYANDINCREASESTHESENSITIVITYOFPAYTOPERFORMANCE,SUCHTHATINCENTIVEPROVISIONISHIGHERTHISINCREASEI
18、NPERFORMANCEPAYSENSITIVITIESISMOREPRONOUNCEDFORTHEHIGHESTPAIDEXECUTIVES,AND,ASINCENTIVEPROVISIONGOESUPWITHFOREIGNCOMPETITION,WAGEDIFFERENTIALSBETWEENEXECUTIVESALSOINCREASEFINALLY,WEALSOFINDTHATTHEOVERALLINCREASEINWAGEDIFFERENTIALSBETWEENEXECUTIVESISDRIVENPARTLYBYTHEFACTTHAT,FACEDWITHMORECOMPETITION,
19、FIRMSAREHIRINGMORETALENTEDEXECUTIVESATTHETOPEVENTHOUGHEXECUTIVESCOMPRISEAPARTICULARSUBSAMPLEOFWORKERS,THEYAREANIDEALGROUPINWHICHTOSTUDYPERFORMANCERELATEDPAYBECAUSEONEHASACLEARMEASUREOFTHEIRPERFORMANCEFIRMPERFORMANCEASREFLECTEDBYTHESTOCKMARKETFURTHERMORE,THISPARTICULARGROUPOFEMPLOYEESALLOWSUSTOIDENTI
20、FYBETTERTHEEFFECTOFCHANGESINFOREIGNCOMPETITIONONFIRMCONTRACTINGBEHAVIORINDEPENDENTOFITSEFFECTSONLABORMARKETSTHISISBECAUSETHEBOUNDARIESOFLABORANDPRODUCTMARKETSARERELATIVELYINDEPENDENTFOREXECUTIVES,WHOMOREFREQUENTLYCHANGEFIRMSBETWEENINDUSTRIESRATHERTHANWITHININDUSTRIES5FINALLY,EVENTHOUGHEXECUTIVESCONS
21、TITUTEAVERYSPECIFICSUBSETOFHIGHLYSKILLEDWORKERS,THEYAREREPRESENTATIVEOFTHEHIGHERENDOFTHEWAGEDISTRIBUTION,ANDUNDERSTANDINGHOWTHEIRCONTRACTSHAVEEVOLVEDMAYSHEDLIGHTONTHEMECHANISMSBEHINDTHEPOLARIZATIONOFEARNINGSAUTORETAL2006INFACT,LEMIEUXETAL2009EMPIRICALLYESTABLISHTHELINKBETWEENTHEGROWINGUSEOFPERFORMAN
22、CERELATEDPAYANDTHEINCREASEINWAGEINEQUALITYINTHEUNITEDSTATESBETWEENTHE1970SAND1990STHEYARGUETHATTHEINCREASEINPERFORMANCERELATEDPAYACCOUNTSFORNEARLYALLOFTHEINCREASEINCOMPENSATIONABOVETHE20THPERCENTILEOFTHEDISTRIBUTIONOURARTICLEPROVIDESONEEXPLANATIONFORWHYTHEUSEOFPERFORMANCEPAYHASINCREASEDTHISARTICLEAL
23、SOCONTRIBUTESTOTHELITERATUREONTHEPOSITIVERELATIONSHIPBETWEENWAGEINEQUALITYANDTRADEOPENNESSWESHOWTHATFOREIGNCOMPETITIONMAYAFFECTTHEPROVISIONOFINCENTIVESWITHINFIRMSINTWOWAYSTHATRAISEINEQUALITYBYINCREASINGWAGEDISPERSIONANDTHROUGHTHEUSEOFPERFORMANCERELATEDPAYTHISISIMPORTANTBECAUSEMOSTOFTHEMECHANISMSEXPL
24、OREDTOLINKINEQUALITYANDTRADEHAVEFAILEDTOFULLYACCOUNTFORTHEOVERALLPOSITIVECORRELATION,INCLUDINGTHEEFFECTSOFOPENNESSONTOTALLABORSUPPLY,TOTALLABORDEMAND,SKILLBIASEDLABORDEMAND,ANDINSTITUTIONSSLAUGHTER1998HERE,WESUGGESTANADDITIONALMECHANISMTHERESTOFTHEARTICLEISASFOLLOWSINSECTIONII,WEPRESENTTHEMOTIVATION
25、OFTHEARTICLEANDTHERELATEDLITERATURESECTIONIIIPRESENTSTHEDATAUSED,SECTIONIVASHOWSTHESPECIFICATIONANDTHERESULTSRELATIVETOFIXEDANDVARIABLEPAY,SECTIONIVBPRESENTSTHERESULTSONPROMOTIONLADDERS,SECTIONIVCEXPLORESHOWFIRMSDEMANDTALENTDIFFERENTLYACCORDINGTOTHEDEGREEOFFOREIGNCOMPETITION,ANDSECTIONVPROVIDESANOVE
26、RALLPICTUREANDCONCLUDESIIBACKGROUNDANDRELATEDLITERATURETHETRENDSTOWARDGLOBALIZATIONOFTRADEANDTHEINCREASEINFOREIGNCOMPETITIONIMPLYTHATFIRMSAREINCREASINGLYEXPOSEDTOCOMPETITIVEPRESSURETYBOUT2003ANINCREASEINIMPORTPENETRATIONINANINDUSTRYMEANSTHATDOMESTICFIRMSFACEMORECOMPETITIONBECAUSEGOODSFROMFOREIGNFIRM
27、SHAVEABIGGERPRESENCEINTHEMARKETFURTHERMORE,CHANGESINFOREIGNCOMPETITIONCANPERMANENTLYRESHAPETHEGENERALCOMPETITIVECONFIGURATIONOFANINDUSTRYINTHEPRESENCEOFFIXEDENTRYCOSTS,ONCEFOREIGNFIRMSDECIDETOEXPORTINTOAMARKET,THEYAREUNLIKELYTOEXIT6THEREFORE,ONECANTHINKOFTHEINCREASEINFOREIGNCOMPETITIONASANINCREASEIN
28、COMPETITIVEPRESSUREFORTHEINDUSTRYANUMBEROFTHEORETICALPAPERSHAVEEXAMINEDTHEEFFECTOFCOMPETITIONONINCENTIVEPROVISIONWITHINTHEPRINCIPALAGENTFRAMEWORKEG,SCHMIDT1997RAITH2003VIVES2008AGENERALRESULTINMOSTCOMPETITIONMODELSISTHAT,WITHMORECOMPETITION,THERESIDUALDEMANDTHATAFIRMFACESBECOMESMOREELASTICANDSHIFTSD
29、OWNTHISGENERATESTWOCOUNTERACTINGEFFECTSINTERMSOFINCENTIVESONTHEONEHAND,MORECOMPETITIONRAISESTHEREWARDTOMARKETSTEALINGACTIVITIESDUETOTHEHIGHERELASTICITYOFMARKETSHARESTOPRODUCTIVITYDIFFERENTIALSEVERYTHINGELSEEQUAL,THISIMPLIESAHIGHERMARGINALRETURNTOMANAGERIALANDWORKERSEFFORTANDLEADSFIRMSTOINTRODUCESTEE
30、PERINCENTIVEPACKAGESONTHEOTHERHAND,THERESIDUALDEMANDTHATAFIRMFACESSHRINKS,REDUCINGMARKUPSANDTHEPROFITABILITY/VALUEOFAGIVENMARKETSHARE,THUSMAKINGMARKETSTEALINGLESSATTRACTIVETHISLEADSTHEFIRMTOREDUCETHESTEEPNESSOFITSINCENTIVECONTRACTSTHECOMPOSITIONOFTHESETWOOPPOSINGFORCESIMPLIESTHAT,APRIORI,THEOVERALLE
31、FFECTISAMBIGUOUSHOWEVER,WHENONEALLOWSFORENDOGENOUSENTRYOFFIRMSINTOTHEINDUSTRY,SINCEFIRMPROFITSARECONSTANTANDDICTATEDBYAZEROPROFITCONDITION,THESECONDEFFECTISNOTPRESENTRAITH2003MODELSCOMPETITIONANDINCENTIVEPAYALLOWINGFORFREEENTRYANDEXITOFFIRMSANDSHOWSTHAT,INTHATCASE,COMPETITIONMEASUREDASINCREASEDELAST
32、ICITYOFSUBSTITUTIONORLARGERMARKETSIZETHATLEADSTOFURTHERENTRYALWAYSLEADSTOANINCREASEINTHEPROVISIONOFINCENTIVESTHEEFFECTIS,HOWEVER,REVERSEDWHENCOMPETITIONINCREASESDUETOAFALLINENTRYCOSTSCOMPETITIONMAYALSOHAVEOTHEREFFECTSONFIRMSFORINSTANCE,ITMAYAFFECTIMPLICITINCENTIVESTOTHEEXTENTTHATITINCREASESTHERISKOF
33、THEFIRMGOINGBANKRUPTANDMAYLEADWORKERSTOEXERTMOREEFFORTTOAVOIDLOSINGTHEIRJOBS,THUSREDUCINGTHENEEDFORTHEFIRMTOPROVIDEEXPLICITINCENTIVESSCHMIDT1997EXPLICITLYMODELSTHISINCENTIVE,ANDSEVERALEMPIRICALPAPERSNICKELL1996GALDONSANCHEZANDSCHMITZ2002SHOWTHATIFADDITIONALCOMPETITIONLEADSTOMOREPRESSUREONPROFITS,EMP
34、LOYEESTENDTOWORKHARDERANINCREASEINCOMPETITIONALSOMAYINCREASETHEAVAILABLEINFORMATIONABOUTMARKETCONDITIONSANDHELPFIRMSTOBETTERASSESSTHECONTRIBUTIONOFANEXECUTIVETOPROFITSHART1983SCHARFSTEIN1988HERMALIN1992THISMAYLEADTOACHANGEINTHESTEEPNESSOFINCENTIVESCHEMESAND,MOREGENERALLY,TOINCREASEDUSEOFRELATIVEPERF
35、ORMANCEEVALUATIONHOWEVER,THISLITERATUREMAKESNOCLEARPREDICTIONSREGARDINGTHEEFFECTOFCOMPETITIONONTHEPROVISIONOFINCENTIVESBASEDONAFIRMSOWNPERFORMANCEOVERALL,THETOTALEFFECTOFCOMPETITIONONINCENTIVEPAYISTHEORETICALLYAMBIGUOUS,WHICHMAKESTHISANINTERESTINGEMPIRICALQUESTION7OURANALYSISASKSWHATISTHENETEFFECTTH
36、ATDOMINATESEMPIRICALLYTOTHEEXTENTTHATFIRMSCANINCREASEPERFORMANCECUTMARGINALCOSTSOFPRODUCTIONEITHERBYINDUCINGMOREEFFORTORBYHIRINGAMORESKILLED/TALENTEDMANAGER,MANYOFTHEARGUMENTSFORREWARDINGMANAGERIALEFFORTAREALSOVALIDFORREWARDINGSKILLGUADALUPE2007ANDMANAGERIALTALENTMARINANDVERDIER2003PRESENTAMODELINWH
37、ICHGLOBALIZATIONAFFECTSTHEHIERARCHICALSTRUCTUREOFTHEFIRMANDTHEREWARDFORTALENTFIRMSCHANGETHEIRHIERARCHICALSTRUCTUREAND,THUS,THEEXPLICITANDIMPLICITINCENTIVESTHATEXECUTIVESFACEANDINCREASETHEIRDEMANDFORTALENTEDCEOSMURPHYANDZABOJNIK2004A,2004BANDFRYDMAN2005ARGUETHATTHEINCREASEINCEOPAYISDUETOHIGHERDEMANDF
38、ORGENERALSKILLS,ANDGABAIXANDLANDIER2008SUGGESTTHATTHEINCREASEINFIRMSIZEHASINCREASEDTHEIMPACTOFCEOSKILLSAND,THEREFORE,THATSMALLDIFFERENCESINSKILLCANLEADTOLARGERDIFFERENCESINCOMPENSATIONOURANALYSISISCOMPLEMENTARYTOTHEIRSSINCEFOREIGNCOMPETITIONCOULDBEANADDITIONALREASONFORWHYGENERALSKILLSAREMOREIMPORTAN
39、TANDFORWHICHSMALLDIFFERENCESINTALENTMATTERMOREWEALSOANALYZEEXPLICITLYTHEEMPIRICALEFFECTOFCOMPETITIONONWITHINFIRMINEQUALITYSECIVBANDTHEREWARDFORTALENTSECIVCVICENTECUNAT,MARIAGUADALUPEGLOBALIZATIONANDTHEPROVISIONOFINCENTIVESINSIDETHEFIRMTHEEFFECTOFFOREIGNCOMPETITIONJJOURNALOFLABORECONOMICS,2009,VOL27,
40、NO2译文全球化和公司内部提供的激励措施对外竞争的影响维森特村在伦敦经济学院玛利亚瓜达卢佩,哥伦比亚大学和CEPR本文研究了外国竞争的变化对美国的赔偿和激励结构的影响。我们发现,进口渗透率(汇率和关税仪表)领导着一个以各种方式提供的更多的激励。首先,它增加了薪金与业绩的敏感性。其次,它增加了公司内部行政层面之间的薪酬差距,CEO们通常得到最大的工资增长。最后,较高的对外竞争与人才的高要求相关。这些结果表明,增加对外竞争可以解释最近的补偿结构的一些趋势。I导言20世纪80年代和90年代,美国的工资和薪酬结构发生了重大变化收入不平等和技能回报增加了,工资急剧上升,特别是在工资分配上(卡茨和作者,1
41、999年;作者,卡茨和科尔尼,2006年)。对于一般工人的劳动力市场推广的趋势,管理人员和工作流动性的增加之间的不平等性,以及CEO薪酬不成比例的增长FRYDMAN,2005年。同时,公司对管理人员和工人的整体报酬加大了激励和与绩效挂钩的薪酬(如计件工资,激昂进和股票期权的使用)(墨菲,1999年;莱米厄,麦克劳德和PARENT,2009年),显示了改变薪酬结构以及固定与浮动薪酬的相对重要性。最后的事实得到的关注很少,1本文中的公司内部改变激励合同和薪酬结构背后的知识根源是有限制的,我们表明,这些变化背后的主要力量是一些在国外的贸易壁垒的减少和经济活动的全球化导致的竞争加剧。论文数量的理论表明
42、,产品市场竞争可以直接影响由企业提供的激励措施在一个委托代理设置中,因为它对利润和努力回报的影响(HERMALIN,1992年;施密特,1997年;雷斯,2003年)。经济活动和贸易的全球化是与一些现象相关的进口的增加,减少贸易壁垒,降低成本的运输和信息传播所有这些往往会增加企业面临的竞争程度。2虽然有其他来源来提高产品的市场竞争力,以确定一个明确的不会被整体趋势混淆的因果关系,我们专注于一个可以运作的特定的竞争渠道即对外竞争,衡量美国公司面临的进口渗透的程度。其他竞争措施的标准(如赫芬达尔指数和价格成本利润)的普遍问题是他们具有内源性和难以衡量或解释不同企业系统随着时间和他们能力的变化,指示
43、性的竞争程度是没有必要的(SCHMALENSEE,1989年)。进口产品的竞争使我们能够克服这些问题。在某种程度上,它随着时间的推移和各个行业的不同,我们可以评估美国的不同之处。制造企业与它们在20世纪90年代的贸易接触的不同演变,他们提供给自己的管理人员激励结构的改变。此外,为了孤立那些在对外竞争中外源性公司的激励政策和潜在省略变量的不相关性,我们用进口关税和汇率作为变量工具。3测算赔偿使用雇主和雇员匹配的美国制造业的大型企业的面板数据,从1992年至2000年每家公司五名高管。它包含了非常详细的两个公司的特点和高管薪酬信息,提供了内部劳动力市场和相当全面的对激励的了解。作为一个可以跟踪的由
44、公司高管面临的外国竞争程度的演变和评估随着时间的推移和各个行业的变化如何去奖励。虽然我们限制分析去改变进口渗透率,以便能够确定一个精确的因果机制。数据集可以使我们更广泛的分析关于赔偿方面。可以提供多种方式努力发挥激励机制,提高管理人员对公司生产力的贡献。有些是明确的和合同形式的,如就奖金或工作表现挂钩的薪酬计划达成协议。其他人则是隐式的(没有明确的书面合同),在承诺和信誉的基础上执行。这些措施包括全权奖金或本公司给定的推广计划。最后,一些激励措施不得由企业直接提供,而是在劳动力市场条件下的(例如,一个绩效者在某一公司良好的业绩可能会导致另外一家公司提供同样的做得更好的行政工作)。4我们对外竞争
45、的变化涉及到工资和劳动力市场的成果,包括固定和浮动薪酬,绩效薪酬的敏感性,与行政职级之间企业的工资差别。此外,利用该数据集的面板尺寸,我们还可以评估公司是否随着对外竞争格局的变化寻求雇佣更多的“能者”或“天才”的人员(作为永久不可观测的工资部分的人才测量)。这些措施加在一起,给我们一个很好的工资结构的描述和对高层管理人员之间提供奖励。尽管高管包括一个特定的工人样本,他们是在一个理想的小组中来研究与业绩挂钩的薪酬,因为每个人都有一个明确的绩效衡量措施公司业绩所反映的股市。此外,这个特殊群体的员工使我们能够更好的辨别公司对外竞争改变的影响,缔约行为与劳动力市场的影响无关。这是因为对主管来说劳动力和
46、产品市场是相对独立的,谁更频繁地在行业之间改变企业,而不是在行业内改变。5最后,尽管管理人员构成了一个非常具体的高技能工人团体,他们是工资分配的高端,了解他们的合同如何进化的机制可能揭示背后的收益(笔者等人,2006年)。事实上,在20世纪70年代至90年代的美国,莱米厄等(2009年)凭经验建立的绩效挂钩的薪酬的使用和工资不平等的增加之间的联系。他们认为,绩效挂钩的薪酬几乎占了所有薪酬增长的20以上的分布。我们的文章为为什么增加绩效工资的使用提供了一个解释。本文对工资不平等性和贸易开放度之间的积极关系方面的文献也有贡献。我们表明对外竞争通过两种方式可能影响企业内部的激励机制来提高不平等通过扩
47、大工资差距和绩效相关薪酬的使用。这是很重要的,因为大多数的机制探索不平等和贸易之间的联系未能充分考虑整体的正相关,包括劳动总供给,劳动总需求,偏向技能的劳动力需求和机构的开放的影响。在这里,我们建议另一种机制。文章的其余部分如下。在第二节中,我们目前的文章和相关文献的动机;第三节介绍了目前使用的数据,第四节A节显示了规范和结果的相对固定和浮动薪酬,第四节B节提出了晋升阶梯,第四节C节探讨企业如何根据对外竞争程度决定不同的人才需求,第五节提出整体的情况并得出结论。II背景及相关文献走向全球化的贸易和对外竞争的趋势意味着企业面临日益加剧的竞争压力(TYLOUT2003年)。一个行业进口渗透的增加意
48、味着国内企业面临更多的竞争,因为外国公司的商品有一个更大的市场。此外,对外竞争格局的变化可以永久重塑一般竞争性行业的配置在固定的市场进入成本下,一旦外国公司决定向市场出口,他们不太可能退出。6因此,可以想到一个行业的对外竞争随着竞争压力的增加而增加。大量的理论研究论文证实了关于在委托代理框架内的奖励经费竞争的影响(例如,施密特,1997年;雷斯,2003年;比韦斯,2008年)。大部分的竞争案例的一般结果是,更多的竞争,一个企业面临的剩余需求更加的弹性和转变。这会对激励方面产生两个抵消的影响一方面,更多的竞争,提高了对由于市场份额较高的弹性生产力差异引起的市场投机活动的奖励。其他一切都不变,这
49、意味着对管理人员和工人的努力有更高的边际回报使得公司引进陡峭激励计划。另一方面,一个企业面临的剩余需求在萎缩,减少标记和盈利/给定的市场份额值,从而使市场投机缺乏吸引力。这导致该公司降低其激励契约倾斜度。这两个对立的力量的组成意味着,先天的,整体效果是模糊的。然而,当允许内源性项目的公司进入该行业时,由于公司的利润是不变的,并以零盈利条件来决定,第二个影响是不存在的。雷斯(2003年)竞争和薪酬激励模型允许企业自由进入和退出,并显示在这种情况下,作为增加替代弹性或更大的市场规模的竞争测量导致了进一步的进入,经常导致激励经费的增加。其效果是,然而,由于进入成本下降竞争加剧时会被逆转。竞争也可能对企业有其他的影响。例如,它可能会影响隐形激励以至于增加了企业破产的风险,并可能导致工人作出更大的努力以避免失去工作,从而减少了企业提供明确奖励的需要。施密特,1997年这种激励模式表明,一些实证论文(尼克尔,1996年;尔顿桑切斯和施米茨,2002年)表明,如果额外的竞争会导致更多的利润压力,员工们更加努力地工作。竞争的加剧也可能增加有关市场条件下的可用信息,并帮助企业更好的评估执行贡献利润(哈特,1983年;沙尔夫斯坦,1988年;赫马林,1992年)。这可能导致一个陡峭激励计划的变化,更一般的说,增加相对绩效评估的使用。然而,这种文献是没有关于竞争对一个企业以自己的绩效为基