1、标题ACROSSCULTURALSTUDYOFCONSUMERPERCEPTIONSABOUTMARKETINGETHICS原文INTERNATIONALGROWTHGROWINGNUMBERSOFMARKETINGFIRMSAREEXPECTINGMOREOFTHEIRPROFITSTOBEDERIVEDFROMINTERNATIONALSALESTOPOLANDSHERMAN,1994TOALARGEEXTENT,SUCHINTERNATIONALGROWTHISFOREORDAINEDINTODAYSWORLD,GIVENTHEEVERINCREASINGGLOBALIZATIONOFE
2、CONOMIESBUTMOVINGINTOFOREIGNMARKETSDOESNOTGUARANTEELARGERPROFITSITMAY,INFACT,GUARANTEEMOREHEADACHESFORMARKETINGMANAGERS,BECAUSEDIFFERENTCULTURESEMPLOYVARIEDMETHODSOFCOMMUNICATIONTHEPIONEERINGWORKOFHALL1959INCLUDEDAMAPOFCULTURETHATINCLUDEDTENDIFFERENTMESSAGESYSTEMSORWAYSOFCOMMUNICATINGMARKETERSWORKIN
3、GABROADMUSTLEARNTHESESYSTEMSINORDERTOBUILDTHETRUSTTHAT,ACCORDINGTOMORGANANDHUNT1994,BECOMESTHEFOUNDATIONOFRELATIONSHIPCOMMITMENTGONEARETHEDAYSWHENAGOODPRODUCTWASALLACOMPANYNEEDEDTOPROSPERGLOBALCOMPETITIONISFEROCIOUSTHUS,DEVELOPINGLONGTERMPARTNERRELATIONSHIPSOFTENBECOMESASIGNIFICANTCOMPETITIVEADVANTA
4、GEBUTHOWDOESAMASSIVE,DIVERSEMULTINATIONALCORPORATIONDEVELOPRELATIONSHIPCOMMITMENTANDTRUSTWITHBUSINESSPARTNERSMORGANANDHUNT1994,P34PROPOSETHATRELATIONSHIPCOMMITMENTANDTRUSTDEVELOPWHENFIRMSATTENDTORELATIONSHIPSBYMAINTAININGHIGHSTANDARDSOFCORPORATEVALUESANDALLYINGONESELFWITHEXCHANGEPARTNERSHAVINGSIMILA
5、RVALUESIFTHISISTRUE,CORPORATEETHICSAREOFPIVOTALIMPORTANCEINGLOBALBUSINESS,THOUGHGLOBALIZATIONALSOCOMPLICATESETHICALQUESTIONS,BECAUSEANINDIVIDUALSCULTUREAFFECTSHIS/HERETHICALDECISIONMAKINGEGFERRELLANDGRESHAM,1985HUNTANDVITELL,1986THISASSERTIONISALSOCONSISTENTWITHTHEPIONEERINGTHEORYOFMARKETINGETHICSBY
6、BARTELS1967ASHESTATED,CONTRASTINGCULTURESOFDIFFERENTSOCIETIESPRODUCEDIFFERENTEXPECTATIONSANDBECOMEEXPRESSEDINTHEDISSIMILARETHICALSTANDARDSOFTHOSESOCIETIESBARTELS1967,P23ACCORDINGLY,ASALSOARGUEDBYMCDONALD1994,FAILURESTOACCOUNTFORTHEEFFECTSOFDIFFERENCESINCONSUMERSCULTURALLYBASEDETHICALVALUESWILLHINDER
7、AMARKETERSEFFORTSTOEXPANDINTERNATIONALLYETHICALISSUEACCORDINGTOETHICSTHEORIES,ETHICALDECISIONMAKINGISALSOSITUATIONSPECIFICFOREXAMPLE,FERRELLANDGRESHAM1985SPECIFYETHICALISSUEORDILEMMAASACOMPONENTPRECEDINGTHEETHICALDECISIONPROCESSINTHEIRGENERALTHEORYOFMARKETINGETHICS,HUNTANDVITELL1986SPECIFYPERCEIVEDE
8、THICALPROBLEMASTHECATALYSTOFTHEWHOLEETHICALDECISIONPROCESSJONES1991,PP3712ALSOBELIEVEDTHESITUATIONWASCRITICALETHICALDECISIONMAKINGISISSUECONTINGENTHEPROVIDEDANIMPORTANTCONSTRUCTFOREXAMININGETHICSRELATEDCHARACTERISTICSOFSITUATIONALFACTORSINDECISIONMAKING,WHICHHETERMEDMORALINTENSITYACCORDINGTOJONES,MO
9、RALINTENSITY,WHICHHEDEFINESASTHEEXTENTOFISSUERELATEDMORALIMPERATIVEINASITUATION,ISANIMPORTANTDETERMINANTOFHOWANINDIVIDUALRECOGNIZESMORALISSUES,MAKESMORALJUDGMENT,ESTABLISHESMORALINTENT,ANDENGAGESINMORALBEHAVIORONEOBJECTIVEOFTHISSTUDYISTOCOMPARECONSUMERSFROMMALAYSIAANDTHEUSAINTERMSOFTHEIRPERCEPTIONSR
10、EGARDINGTHEINTENSITYOFDIFFERENTMARKETINGETHICSSITUATIONSACCORDINGTOMOSTMARKETINGETHICSTHEORIES,ANINDIVIDUALWILLAPPLYETHICALGUIDELINESBASEDONDIFFERENTMORALPHILOSOPHIESORIDEOLOGIESWHENMAKINGDECISIONSINVOLVINGETHICALPROBLEMSEGFERRELLANDGRESHAM,1985HUNTANDVITELL,1986INTHISSTUDY,MALAYSIANANDUSCONSUMERSWI
11、LLALSOBECOMPAREDINTERMSOFTHEIRPERSONALMORALPHILOSOPHIESMOREOVER,THETWOGROUPSOFCONSUMERSWILLBECOMPAREDREGARDINGTHEIRATTITUDESTOWARDBUSINESS,INGENERAL,ANDTOWARDSALESPEOPLETHEUSAANDMALAYSIAWERECHOSENFORCOMPARISONBECAUSEOFSOMEFUNDAMENTALDIFFERENCESBETWEENTHETWOCOUNTRIESFOREXAMPLE,ACCORDINGTOHOFSTEDES198
12、0,1983CULTURALTYPOLOGY,THETWOCULTURESAREDIFFERENTINCERTAINIMPORTANTVALUESADETAILEDDISCUSSIONWILLBEGIVENLATERINANEMPIRICALSTUDY,BURNSANDBRADY1996CONSISTENTLYFOUNDGENUINEDIFFERENCESINETHICALPERCEPTIONSOFBUSINESSSTUDENTSINMALAYSIACOMPAREDTOTHEIRCOUNTERPARTSINTHEUSAHELPWITHUNDERSTANDINGKNOWLEDGEREGARDIN
13、GTHEDIFFERENCES,IFANY,BETWEENTHECONSUMERSFROMTHESETWOCULTURESINTERMSOFTHEIRATTITUDES,ETHICALPERCEPTIONS,ANDMORALPHILOSOPHIESWILLNOTONLYHELPUSWITHOURUNDERSTANDINGOFCROSSCULTURALETHICSBUTWILLHAVESIGNIFICANTIMPLICATIONSFORINTERNATIONALMARKETINGMANAGEMENTONKVISITANDSHAW1989BELIEVETHATTHESECONDARYSTATUSO
14、FSOMEUSMARKETERSINASIAISARESULTOFACOMBINATIONOFIGNORANCEOFTRADITIONANDTHEDIFFICULTIESASSOCIATEDWITHUNDERSTANDINGCULTURALDIFFERENCESETHICALJUDGMENTSOFBUSINESSPRACTICESAREALSOMADEBYCONSUMERSANDTHESEJUDGMENTS,ATLEASTINTHELONGRUN,CANINFLUENCETHECONSUMERSACCEPTANCEORREJECTIONOFBUSINESSACTIVITIESLACZNIAKA
15、NDMURPHY,1993INFACT,INHISSTUDYOFURBANCONSUMERS,STONEFOUNDACATEGORYOFSHOPPERSHEDESIGNATEDASETHICALRESPONSESINTHISCATEGORYSIGNIFIEDTHATTHEINFORMANTSFEELAMORALOBLIGATIONTOPATRONIZESPECIFICTYPESOFSTORESTHEYPERCEIVESHOPPINGINTHELIGHTOFALARGERSETOFVALUESSTONE,1954,P38THEREFORE,ANEMPIRICALINVESTIGATIONOFHO
16、WCONSUMERSINDIFFERENTCULTURESPERCEIVECERTAINETHICALISSUESINMARKETING,THEIRATTITUDESTOWARDBUSINESSANDSALESPEOPLE,ANDTHEPERSONALMORALPHILOSOPHIESTHATFORMTHEBASESFORTHESEPERCEPTIONSANDATTITUDESWOULDPROVIDEMARKETERSWITHSIGNIFICANTINSIGHTSABOUTHOWTODESIGNAPPROPRIATEMARKETINGPOLICIESCULTURALTYPOLOGYANDCON
17、SUMERETHICSCULTURECANBEDEFINEDASTHECOLLECTIVEPROGRAMMINGOFTHEMINDTHATDISTINGUISHESTHEMEMBERSOFONECATEGORYOFPEOPLEFROMTHOSEOFANOTHERHOFSTEDEANDBOND,1988,P6THEWORKOFHOFSTEDE1979,1980,1983,1984SUGGESTSTHATNATIONALCULTURESCANBECLASSIFIEDALONGFOURPRIMARYDIMENSIONS1POWERDISTANCE2INDIVIDUALISM3UNCERTAINTYA
18、VOIDANCEAND4MASCULINITYPOWERDISTANCEANDINDIVIDUALISMMALAYSIAANDTHEUSAAREQUITEFARAPARTONTWOOFTHESEDIMENSIONS,POWERDISTANCEANDINDIVIDUALISMTHEREFORE,THESEWILLBEUSEDASBASESFORTHEHYPOTHESESTESTEDINTHEPRESENTSTUDYPOWERDISTANCEADDRESSESTHEDEGREETOWHICHASOCIETYSWEAKERMEMBERSACCEPTINJUSTICESINHOWPOWERISEXER
19、CISEDWHILEINJUSTICESARISEINEVERYSOCIETY,DIFFERENTCULTURESACCEPTVARYINGLEVELSOFINEQUITYMEMBERSOFCULTURESCHARACTERIZEDBYAHIGHPOWERDISTANCEEGMALAYSIAAREEXPECTEDTOOBEYASUPERIORSDICTATESBLINDLYINDIVIDUALSSOCIALIZEDINSUCHCULTURESTENDTOUSEFORMALSTANDARDSANDIDEALSFORGUIDANCEONAPPROPRIATEBEHAVIORINCONSUMPTIO
20、NSITUATIONSHAVINGETHICALCONTENTVITELLETAL,1993INDIVIDUALSNURTUREDINCULTURESTHATHAVELOWPOWERDISTANCEEGTHEUSADONOTAUTOMATICALLYCONFERRESPECTTOTHEIRSUPERIORSRESPECTGENERALLYMUSTBEEARNEDINTHESECULTURESINDIVIDUALSINLOWPOWERDISTANCESOCIETIESGENERALLYTURNTOTHEIRCOLLEAGUESORPEERGROUPFORGUIDANCEINDIVIDUALISM
21、ADDRESSESTHEEXTENTTOWHICHMEMBERSOFACULTUREARECONCERNEDMAINLYWITHTHEIROWNINTERESTSANDFAMILYSWELFARECOLLECTIVISTCULTURESEGMALAYSIAVIEWINDIVIDUALSASPARTOFALARGERGROUP,SUCHASANEXTENDEDFAMILYORTRIBETHEGROUPPROTECTSITSMEMBERSINTERESTSANDTHEY,INRETURN,AREEXPECTEDTOSHOWLOYALTYTOANDCONCERNFORTHEGROUPASAWHOLE
22、MEMBERSOFINDIVIDUALISTICCULTURESEGTHEUSAFREQUENTLYQUESTIONTHEETHICALNORMSANDSTANDARDSESTABLISHEDBYTHEIRSOCIETIESBYCONTRAST,MEMBERSOFCOLLECTIVISTCULTURESAREINCLINEDTOACCEPTTHEMVITELL,ETAL,1993ETHICALCONTENTCULTURALLYBASEDDIFFERENCESINFLUENCEHOWCONSUMERSPERCEIVEBUSINESSPRACTICES,INCLUDINGTHOSEPRACTICE
23、STHATHAVEETHICALCONTENTSUCHEFFECTSSHOULDBECOMEINCREASINGLYRELEVANTASMARKETERSEXPANDTHEIREFFORTSFROMONECULTURETOTHENEXTMARKETERSMUSTUNDERSTANDTHENECESSITYTOFAMILIARIZETHEMSELVESWITHTHECULTURALLYBASEDETHICALNORMSTHATAREDOMINANTINTHECOUNTRIESTHEYHAVETARGETEDFORENTRYCONSIDERTHEFOLLOWINGILLUSTRATIONACTSS
24、UCHASCOMPACTDISKPIRACYORBRANDCOUNTERFEITINGAREILLEGALANDLIKELYTOBECONSIDEREDUNETHICALBYCONSUMERSINMOSTWESTERNCOUNTRIESTHESESAMEACTIVITIES,HOWEVER,AREQUITECOMMONBUSINESSPRACTICESINMANYEASTASIANNATIONSFOREXAMPLE,CHINAHASRECENTLYBEENACCUSEDOFINTELLECTUALPROPERTYTHEFTOFPRODUCTSSUCHASMOVIES,MUSICANDCOMPU
25、TERSOFTWAREORIGINATINGINTHEUSAOTHERASIANMARKETSARESIMILARLYFLOODEDWITHTAIWANESEANDKOREANKNOCKOFFSSUCHASROLEXWATCHESANDSWISSARMYKNIVESQUESTIONABLEPRACTICESSUCHASTHESEMIGHTDISCOURAGEMARKETERSFROMEXPANDINGINTOCERTAINCULTURESOR,ATLEAST,AFFECTTHEIRMODEOFENTRYMCDONALD,1994STANDARDSDECLINEDTHEREHAVERECENTL
26、YBEENANUMBEROFBUSINESSETHICSSTUDIESOFBUSINESSSTUDENTSANDMANAGERSINMALAYSIAFOREXAMPLE,ACCORDINGTOTHESTUDYBYZABIDANDALSAGOFF1993,MALAYSIANMANAGERSFEELTHATSOMEUNETHICALBUSINESSPRACTICESEXISTBECAUSETHEYSEEMTOBEGENERALLYACCEPTEDINTHEBUSINESSWORLDWHILETHEPERCEIVEDVALUESOFTHEMALAYSIANMANAGERSRESPONDINGAPPE
27、AREDHIGH,RESPONDENTSFELTTHATSTANDARDSHADDECLINEDOVERTHEPAST15YEARSALAM1995FOUNDTHATAMAJORITYOFMALAYSIANBUSINESSSTUDENTSALSOFELTTHATETHICSHADDECLINEDINRECENTYEARSTHERESULTSFROMHISSTUDYINDICATETHATMALAYSIANBUSINESSSTUDENTSBELIEVETHATMOREEMPHASISSHOULDBEPLACEDONETHICSANDTHEDEVELOPMENTOFAMORECARINGENVIR
28、ONMENTINBUSINESSSCHOOLSTSURUOKA1993CITESAPHILOSOPHYINMALAYSIATHATEMBRACESTHEIDEATHATALLBUSINESSSHOULDHAVEASOCIOECONOMICANDNOTJUSTANECONOMICFUNCTIONTHISSUPPORTSTHERESEARCHFINDINGSOFALAM1995INDICATINGTHEBELIEFTHATMALAYSIANEEDSANORIENTATIONTOWARDVALUESRATHERTHANPROFITSTHESESTUDIESARERELATEDTOUNETHICALA
29、CTIVITIESASPERCEIVEDBYEITHERFUTUREMANAGERSORTHOSEDIRECTLYINVOLVEDINTHEEVERYDAYBUSINESSPRACTICESTHEPRESENTRESEARCH,INCONTRAST,COMPARESTHEETHICALBELIEFSHELDBYCONSUMERSTOWARDBUSINESSESINAFOREIGNMARKETWITHTHOSEHELDBYUSCONSUMERSTHEIMPLICATIONSSHOULDHELPINTERNATIONALMARKETERSBETTERUNDERSTANDHOWTOTARGETFOR
30、EIGNCONSUMERSTHERISKSOFNEWMARKETENTRYCANTHENBELESSENEDTOSOMEEXTENTRESEARCHHYPOTHESESACULTUREEXISTSANYWHEREWHEREAGROUPOFPEOPLESHAREADISTINCTIVESETOFBELIEFS,NORMS,ANDCUSTOMSASPOINTEDOUTBYBARTELS1967INHISPIONEERWORK,FUNDAMENTALCULTURALFACTORSSUCHASRELIGION,NATIONALIDENTITY,ANDLOYALTIES,VALUES,ANDCUSTOM
31、SAREKNOWNTOBEIMPORTANTINFLUENCESONETHICALDECISIONSTHEPRIMARYUNDERLYINGDIMENSIONOFACULTUREISTHEVALUESOFITSMEMBERSVALUESAREDESCRIBEDASTHEBASICCONVICTIONSTHATAGROUPOFPEOPLESHAREREGARDINGWHATISRIGHTORWRONGHOFSTEDEETAL,1990INDIVIDUALSLEARNTHECULTURALVALUESFROMTHESOCIETYINWHICHTHEYAREREAREDINVARIABLY,THEY
32、HELPTOMOLDTHEPERSONSBEHAVIORALPATTERNSDIFFERENTVIEWSACCORDINGLY,WEWOULDEXPECTTHATCONSUMERSFROMDIFFERENTCULTURESWILLTENDTOHOLDDIFFERENTVIEWSOFETHICALISSUESFOREXAMPLE,WHATISPERCEIVEDASOUTSIDETHELIMITSOFETHICALBEHAVIORINONECOUNTRYMIGHTREPRESENTACOMPLETELYETHICALPRACTICEINANOTHERINGERMANY,FORINSTANCE,TA
33、XMANUALSSTATETHATBRIBESTODOMESTICOFFICIALSARENOTDEDUCTIBLEASBUSINESSEXPENSES,WHILEBRIBESTOFOREIGNOFFICIALSAREKAIKATIANDLABEL,1980USCITIZENSTYPICALLYBELIEVESUCHBEHAVIORSAREWRONGINTHEMIDDLEEAST,LEBANESECONSUMERSARELESSSENSITIVETOQUESTIONABLEMARKETPRACTICES,MOREMACHIAVELLIAN,LESSIDEALISTIC,ANDMORERELAT
34、IVISTICTHANEGYPTIANCONSUMERSRAWWASETAL,1994LEBANONSEXTENDEDEPISODESOFBRUTALCIVILWARANDTERRORISMOVERRECENTTIMESMAYHAVEACCULTURATEDLEBANESECONSUMERSTODEVALUETHEWORTHOFHUMANLIFE,MORALITY,VALUES,ANDLAWSINTHATPARTICULARMARKET,GLOBALAPPLICATIONSOFUSMARKETERSDOMESTICSTANDARDSMAYJEOPARDIZETHEIROPERATIONSSUC
35、CESSTRUSTINGINDIVIDUALSFROMCULTURESTHATHABITUALLYEXHIBITETHICALSTANDARDSTHATDIFFERFROMTHESTANDARDSPREDOMINATINGINTHEUSACOULDBEDISASTROUSTOMULTINATIONALMARKETERSTHISASSERTIONBRINGSUSTOTHECENTRALRESEARCHQUESTIONHOWDOETHICALVALUESOFINDIVIDUALSDIFFERWHENTHEYAREREAREDINDIFFERENTCULTURESRESEARCHSOCIETYMAR
36、KETERSMUSTRESEARCHTHESOCIETYTOOBSERVEWHETHERDIFFERENCESEXISTPRUDENTMARKETERSWILLALIGNTHEIRMARKETINGSTRATEGIESBEFOREENTERINGNEWMARKETARENASTOBESUCCESSFULINTHEIREFFORTSTHEPRESENTSTUDYFOCUSESSPECIFICALLYONTWOCOUNTRIESFORCOMPARISON,THEUSAANDMALAYSIATHESETWONATIONSARESIMILARINTHATEACHHASBEENBLESSEDBYLONG
37、STANDINGPOLITICALSTABILITYBYTRADITIONALGLOBALSTANDARDS,BOTHCOUNTRIESHAVEALSOENJOYEDWIDESPREADECONOMICPROSPERITYOVERANEXTENDEDPERIODOFTIMEONEMAYTHUSREASONTHATANYDIFFERENCESEXISTINGINTERMSOFETHICALPERCEPTIONSANDBELIEFSHELDBYUSANDMALAYSIANCONSUMERSARELIKELYTORESULTFROMSOMECULTURALDIFFERENCESACROSSTHETW
38、ONATIONSPERCEIVEDMORALINTENSITYASPOINTEDOUTEARLIER,ONEOBJECTIVEOFTHISSTUDYISTOCOMPARECONSUMERSFROMMALAYSIAANDTHEUSAINTERMSOFTHEIRPERCEIVEDINTENSITYOFDIFFERENTMARKETINGETHICSSITUATIONSTHECONSTRUCTMORALINTENSITY,ASCONCEPTUALIZEDBYJONES1991,HASSIXCOMPONENTS1MAGNITUDEOFCONSEQUENCES2SOCIALCONSENSUS3PROBA
39、BILITYOFEFFECT4TEMPORALIMMEDIACY5PROXIMITYAND6CONCENTRATIONOFEFFECTACCORDINGTOJONES,IFTHEINTENSITYOFAMORALSITUATIONISPERCEIVEDASWEAKINTERMSOFTHESESIXCOMPONENTSTHESITUATIONWILLNOTBEVIEWEDASBEINGANETHICALPROBLEMANDVICEVERSA出处ANUSORNSINGHAPAKDI，MOHAMMEDYARAWWAS，JANETKMARTA，MOHDISMAILAHMEDACROSSCULTURAL
40、STUDYOFCONSUMERPERCEPTIONSABOUTMARKETINGETHICSJCONSUMERMARKETING,VOL16NO31999,PP257272标题消费者营销道德观念的跨文化研究译文简介鉴于日益全球化的经济，越来越多的营销公司都期待得到更多的来自国际销售的利润。全球竞争是激烈的，因此，经常发展长期合作伙伴关系通常称为一个比较明显的竞争优势。企业道德的关键重要性在全球业务中，虽然全球化还使道德问题变得复杂，因为一个人的文化影响其道德决策。对于满足消费者基于文化的道德价值的失败将会阻碍营销扩大国际的影响。比较从马来西亚和美国的消费者对营销道德情况的看法，他们对业务和销售
41、人员以及他们个人的道德哲学的态度。调查结果显示了一些这两个国家消费者之间的差异。国际增长越来越多的市场营销公司都期待着更多的来自国际的销售利润TOPOLANDSHERMAN,1994。鉴于日益全球化的经济体系，在一个大的程度上这种国际的增长是在今天的世界。但进入国外市场并不能保证更大利润，事实上它有可能给市场营销经理带来更多麻烦，因为不同的文化通过不用的方式来交流。会场的开放性工作（1959）包括一种含有十个不同邮件系统或通信方法的“地图文化”。在国外工作的营销人员必须学习这些制度，以便建立信任，根据MORGANANDHUNT（1994），会成为承诺关系的基础。当一个好的产品是一个蓬勃发展所需
42、的所有公司的日子已经一去不复返了。全球竞争是激烈的，因此，经常发展长期合作伙伴关系变成明显的竞争优势。但是，怎样与一个大规模、多样化的跨国公司发展合作关系并且和业务合作伙伴相互信任MORGANANDHUNT（1994）提出“发展公司参加的承诺和信任的关系维持高水准的企业价值观和自己联合有相似值的交流合作。”如果这是真的，企业道德的关键在全球业务中的重要性，虽然全球化也变成复杂道德的问题，因为一个人的文化影响其伦理决策（例如FERRELLANDGRESHAM,1985HUNTANDVITELL,1986）。这种说法也是符合BARTELS1967的营销道德的开拓理论。像他说的“对比不同的社会文化产
43、生不同的期望，并成为表示在不同社会的道德标准“BARTELS1967。因此，MCDONALD（1994）同样认为对于满足消费者基于文化的道德价值的失败将会阻碍营销扩大国际的影响。伦理问题根据道德理论，道德决策也是具体的情况。例如，FERRELLANDGRESHAM1985指出“道德问题或困境”作为符合道德决策过程的一个组成部分。在他们营销道德的理论里，HUNTANDVITELL1986指出“道德问题的认为”作为符合整个道德决策过程的催化剂。JONES1991同样认为环境是关键“道德决策时问题特遣队”他提供了一个重要的在决策中的与道德有关特性的检查的构造情境因素，这个被他称为到的强度。根据JON
44、ES，他定义道德强度为“在一种情况下相关道义责任的问题”是一个重要的个人如何认识到道德问题的决定因素，建成道德判断，建立道德的意图，以及从事道德的行为。这项研究的目标之一是比较消费者从马来西亚和美国的有关强度不同的营销道德情况的看法。根据大多数营销道德理论，个人涉及伦理问题的决策时将基于不同的道德哲学或意识形态的道德准则EGFERRELLANDGRESHAM,1985HUNTANDVITELL,1986。在这项研究中，马来西亚和美国消费者也将他们个人的道德哲学角度进行比较。此外，两个组将比较消费者，总的来说及其对销售人员就其业务的态度。选择比较美国和马来西亚是因为两国之间的基本的一些差异。例如
45、，根据HOFSTEDES1980,1983文化类型学，在某些重要价值方面两种文化是不同的。在一项实证研究中，BURNSANDBRADY1996不断在马来西亚和美国业务学生对比中找到真正的道德观念差异。权利距离与个人主义马来西亚和美国在权利距离和个人主义这些方面分歧很大。因此，这些将用作于作为基地在本研究中测试的假说。权利距离解决了一个社会的弱势成员接受不公正现象中如何行使权利程度的问题。虽然在每个社会中出现不公正现象，不同的文化接受产生不同程度的不平等现象。具有高权利距离的文化成员（例如马来西亚）预计服从上级的盲目支配。在这种文化中，社会化的个人倾向于正式标准和理想的使用有关适当行为的道德内容
46、和消费情况的指南VITELLETAL,1993。个人在文化培育具有低功耗的距离（如美国）不要自动赋予他们的上级尊重。在这些文化中通常必须赢得尊重。在低的权利距离社会中的个人一般由他们的同事或同等组提供指导。在某种程度上个人主义解决的主要是文化成员所关心的以自己的利益和家庭的福利。集体主义文化（例如马来西亚）将个人作为一个较大的组的一部分，就如一个大家庭或一个部落。那个组保护其成员的利益然后他们作为回报期待显示其忠诚和对整个组的关注。个人主义文化的成员（例如美国）经常就道德规范和社会所确立的标准提问。与此相反，集体主义的文化成员倾向于接受他们VITELL,ETAL,1993。道德强度（1996年
47、），美国市场营销协会执业会员将营销道德作为重点调查。他们的研究使用了道德强度的六个组成部分，这个是被琼斯确定的为道德强度的规模发展奠定基础的。他们的调查结果普遍表示，这六个强度组件是道德观念和营销意图的重要因素。目前特别相关的研究中，他们的探索性因素分析表明，道德强度的六个组成部分，实际上可能是两个方面综合到一起（1）感知潜在的危害/无危害与领悟社会的压力。（2）在这项研究中，马来西亚和美国的消费者将比较在这两个方面的条款。鉴于显示的重要性的认识程度在伦理道德问题上做出决定。消费者之间的潜在的两种文化的差异调查，将不仅会大大增加我们的市场营销伦理决策的理解，而且也将对国际市场营销提供一些有益的
48、影响。常见福利的支持作为一个预测消费者行为的态度的重要性是被公认的文学EGENGELETAL,1995。总的说来，我们可以假定有一个更积极的态度对待商业和销售人员的消费者将更容易接受企业和销售人员的产品。来自不同文化的人可能会在态度的角度方面有所不同，这将对国际市场营销管理有重大影响。本研究将从马来西亚和美国方面的业务和销售人员对消费者的态度进行比较。营销道德方案方案通常用于作为研究工具在营销伦理研究中的一部分（EGCHONKOANDHUNT1985LACZNIAKETAL,1981SINGHAPAKDIETAL,1996）。这项研究方案被DORNOFFANDTANKERSLEY1975和RE
49、IDENBACHETAL1991通过感知道德强度使用一些预测试和调整来制定多种方案营销道德去实施。在实际调查中使用的四种情况在附录一中给出。本书的马来西亚合著已确定在方案中对马来西亚客户所描述的情况是熟悉和有意义的。SINGHAPAKDIETAL1996的发展道德强度规模在这项研究中被通过（详见附录二）。LIKERTTYPE的九个百分点用于测量（1完全不赞同，9完全赞同）。六个项目的开发规模反应了由JONES（1991）六个道德强度组成部分的每个基本部分。每个方案中所描述的有关道德问题的感知的强度是直接以要求每个答辩人表示这些语句的每个协议或分歧的程度来衡量的。道德强度规模有两个方面（1）潜在危害或者没有危害（2）察觉到社会压力市场监督在所有的业务功能，营销可能接收到的大多数的审议，生成大多数争议和面临伦理的批判中。早在1981年，MURPHYANDLACZNIAK1981已经提出处理道德的一百多篇文章。回答了问题“营销是不道德的吗”CHONKO1995,P1最近指出“今天，对于拿起一份不包含一些关于一些可疑业务和营销行为故事的报纸或杂志是很难的”。这似乎怪诞，如果确实需要由驱动营销确保长期客户满意度和维持关系的话。但市场营销也是负责最直接与消费者进行交互的业务功能。没有人应该感到惊讶，加
