1、毕业论文（设计）外文翻译一、外文原文标题CLUSTERSANDTHENEWECONOMICSOFCOMPETITION原文WHATISACLUSTERCLUSTERSAREGEOGRAPHICCONCENTRATIONSOFINTERCONNECTEDCOMPANIESANDINSTITUTIONSINAPARTICULARFIELDCLUSTERSENCOMPASSANARRAYOFLINKEDINDUSTRIESANDOTHERENTITIESIMPORTANTTOCOMPETITIONTHEYINCLUDE,FOREXAMPLE,SUPPLIERSOFSPECIALIZEDINPUTSS
2、UCHASCOMPONENTS,MACHINERY,ANDSERVICES,ANDPROVIDERSOFSPECIALIZEDINFRASTRUCTURECLUSTERSALSOOFTENEXTENDDOWNSTREAMTOCHANNELSANDCUSTOMERSANDLATERALLYTOMANUFACTURERSOFCOMPLEMENTARYPRODUCTSANDTOCOMPANIESININDUSTRIESRELATEDBYSKILLS,TECHNOLOGIES,ORCOMMONINPUTSFINALLY,MANYCLUSTERSINCLUDEGOVERNMENTALANDOTHERIN
3、STITUTIONSSUCHASUNIVERSITIES,STANDARDSSETTINGAGENCIES,THINKTANKS,VOCATIONALTRAININGPROVIDERS,ANDTRADEASSOCIATIONSTHATPROVIDESPECIALIZEDTRAINING,EDUCATION,INFORMATION,RESEARCH,ANDTECHNICALSUPPORTTHECALIFORNIAWINECLUSTERISAGOODEXAMPLEITINCLUDES680COMMERCIALWINERIESASWELLASSEVERALTHOUSANDINDEPENDENTWIN
4、EGRAPEGROWERSSEETHEEXHIBIT“ANATOMYOFTHECALIFORNIAWINECLUSTER”ANEXTENSIVECOMPLEMENTOFINDUSTRIESSUPPORTINGBOTHWINEMAKINGANDGRAPEGROWINGEXISTS,INCLUDINGSUPPLIERSOFGRAPESTOCK,IRRIGATIONANDHARVESTINGEQUIPMENT,BARRELS,ANDLABELSSPECIALIZEDPUBLICRELATIONSANDADVERTISINGFIRMSANDNUMEROUSWINEPUBLICATIONSAIMEDAT
5、CONSUMERANDTRADEAUDIENCESAHOSTOFLOCALINSTITUTIONSISINVOLVEDWITHWINE,SUCHASTHEWORLDRENOWNEDVITICULTUREANDENOLOGYPROGRAMATTHEUNIVERSITYOFCALIFORNIAATDAVIS,THEWINEINSTITUTE,ANDSPECIALCOMMITTEESOFTHECALIFORNIASENATEANDASSEMBLYTHECLUSTERALSOENJOYSWEAKERLINKAGESTOOTHERCALIFORNIACLUSTERSINAGRICULTURE,FOODA
6、NDRESTAURANTS,ANDWINECOUNTRYTOURISMCONSIDERALSOTHEITALIANLEATHERFASHIONCLUSTER,WHICHCONTAINSWELLKNOWNSHOECOMPANIESSUCHASFERRAGAMOANDGUCCIASWELLASAHOSTOFSPECIALIZEDSUPPLIERSOFFOOTWEARCOMPONENTS,MACHINERY,MOLDS,DESIGNSERVICES,ANDTANNEDLEATHERSEETHEEXHIBIT“MAPPINGTHEITALIANLEATHERFASHIONCLUSTER”ITALSOC
7、ONSISTSOFSEVERALCHAINSOFRELATEDINDUSTRIES,INCLUDINGTHOSEPRODUCINGDIFFERENTTYPESOFLEATHERGOODSLINKEDBYCOMMONINPUTSANDTECHNOLOGIESANDDIFFERENTTYPESOFFOOTWEARLINKEDBYOVERLAPPINGCHANNELSANDTECHNOLOGIESTHESEINDUSTRIESEMPLOYCOMMONMARKETINGMEDIAANDCOMPETEWITHSIMILARIMAGESINSIMILARCUSTOMERSEGMENTSARELATEDIT
8、ALIANCLUSTERINTEXTILEFASHION,INCLUDINGCLOTHING,SCARVES,ANDACCESSORIES,PRODUCESCOMPLEMENTARYPRODUCTSTHATOFTENEMPLOYCOMMONCHANNELSTHEEXTRAORDINARYSTRENGTHOFTHEITALIANLEATHERFASHIONCLUSTERCANBEATTRIBUTED,ATLEASTINPART,TOTHEMULTIPLELINKAGESANDSYNERGIESTHATPARTICIPATINGITALIANBUSINESSESENJOYACLUSTERSBOUN
9、DARIESAREDEFINEDBYTHELINKAGESANDCOMPLEMENTARITIESACROSSINDUSTRIESANDINSTITUTIONSTHATAREMOSTIMPORTANTTOCOMPETITIONALTHOUGHCLUSTERSOFTENFITWITHINPOLITICALBOUNDARIES,THEYMAYCROSSSTATEOREVENNATIONALBORDERSINTHEUNITEDSTATES,FOREXAMPLE,APHARMACEUTICALSCLUSTERSTRADDLESNEWJERSEYANDPENNSYLVANIANEARPHILADELPH
10、IASIMILARLY,ACHEMICALSCLUSTERINGERMANYCROSSESOVERINTOGERMANSPEAKINGSWITZERLANDCLUSTERSRARELYCONFORMTOSTANDARDINDUSTRIALCLASSIFICATIONSYSTEMS,WHICHFAILTOCAPTUREMANYIMPORTANTACTORSANDRELATIONSHIPSINCOMPETITIONTHUSSIGNIFICANTCLUSTERSMAYBEOBSCUREDOREVENGOUNRECOGNIZEDINMASSACHUSETTS,FOREXAMPLE,MORETHAN40
11、0COMPANIES,REPRESENTINGATLEAST39,000HIGHPAYINGJOBS,AREINVOLVEDINMEDICALDEVICESINSOMEWAYTHECLUSTERLONGREMAINEDALLBUTINVISIBLE,HOWEVER,BURIEDWITHINLARGERANDOVERLAPPINGINDUSTRYCATEGORIESSUCHASELECTRONICEQUIPMENTANDPLASTICPRODUCTSEXECUTIVESINTHEMEDICALDEVICESCLUSTERHAVEONLYRECENTLYCOMETOGETHERTOWORKONIS
12、SUESTHATWILLBENEFITTHEMALLCLUSTERSPROMOTEBOTHCOMPETITIONANDCOOPERATIONRIVALSCOMPETEINTENSELYTOWINANDRETAINCUSTOMERSWITHOUTVIGOROUSCOMPETITION,ACLUSTERWILLFAILYETTHEREISALSOCOOPERATION,MUCHOFITVERTICAL,INVOLVINGCOMPANIESINRELATEDINDUSTRIESANDLOCALINSTITUTIONSCOMPETITIONCANCOEXISTWITHCOOPERATIONBECAUS
13、ETHEYOCCURONDIFFERENTDIMENSIONSANDAMONGDIFFERENTPLAYERSCLUSTERSREPRESENTAKINDOFNEWSPATIALORGANIZATIONALFORMINBETWEENARMSLENGTHMARKETSONTHEONEHANDANDHIERARCHIES,ORVERTICALINTEGRATION,ONTHEOTHERACLUSTER,THEN,ISANALTERNATIVEWAYOFORGANIZINGTHEVALUECHAINCOMPAREDWITHMARKETTRANSACTIONSAMONGDISPERSEDANDRAND
14、OMBUYERSANDSELLERS,THEPROXIMITYOFCOMPANIESANDINSTITUTIONSINONELOCATIONANDTHEREPEATEDEXCHANGESAMONGTHEMFOSTERSBETTERCOORDINATIONANDTRUSTTHUSCLUSTERSMITIGATETHEPROBLEMSINHERENTINARMSLENGTHRELATIONSHIPSWITHOUTIMPOSINGTHEINFLEXIBILITIESOFVERTICALINTEGRATIONORTHEMANAGEMENTCHALLENGESOFCREATINGANDMAINTAINI
15、NGFORMALLINKAGESSUCHASNETWORKS,ALLIANCES,ANDPARTNERSHIPSACLUSTEROFINDEPENDENTANDINFORMALLYLINKEDCOMPANIESANDINSTITUTIONSREPRESENTSAROBUSTORGANIZATIONALFORMTHATOFFERSADVANTAGESINEFFICIENCY,EFFECTIVENESS,ANDFLEXIBILITYWHYCLUSTERSARECRITICALTOCOMPETITIONMODERNCOMPETITIONDEPENDSONPRODUCTIVITY,NOTONACCES
16、STOINPUTSORTHESCALEOFINDIVIDUALENTERPRISESPRODUCTIVITYRESTSONHOWCOMPANIESCOMPETE,NOTONTHEPARTICULARFIELDSTHEYCOMPETEINCOMPANIESCANBEHIGHLYPRODUCTIVEINANYINDUSTRYSHOES,AGRICULTURE,ORSEMICONDUCTORSIFTHEYEMPLOYSOPHISTICATEDMETHODS,USEADVANCEDTECHNOLOGY,ANDOFFERUNIQUEPRODUCTSANDSERVICESALLINDUSTRIESCANE
17、MPLOYADVANCEDTECHNOLOGYALLINDUSTRIESCANBEKNOWLEDGEINTENSIVETHESOPHISTICATIONWITHWHICHCOMPANIESCOMPETEINAPARTICULARLOCATION,HOWEVER,ISSTRONGLYINFLUENCEDBYTHEQUALITYOFTHELOCALBUSINESSENVIRONMENTCOMPANIESCANNOTEMPLOYADVANCEDLOGISTICALTECHNIQUES,FOREXAMPLE,WITHOUTAHIGHQUALITYTRANSPORTATIONINFRASTRUCTURE
18、NORCANCOMPANIESEFFECTIVELYCOMPETEONSOPHISTICATEDSERVICEWITHOUTWELLEDUCATEDEMPLOYEESBUSINESSESCANNOTOPERATEEFFICIENTLYUNDERONEROUSREGULATORYREDTAPEORUNDERACOURTSYSTEMTHATFAILSTORESOLVEDISPUTESQUICKLYANDFAIRLYSOMEASPECTSOFTHEBUSINESSENVIRONMENT,SUCHASTHELEGALSYSTEM,FOREXAMPLE,ORCORPORATETAXRATES,AFFEC
19、TALLINDUSTRIESINADVANCEDECONOMIES,HOWEVER,THEMOREDECISIVEASPECTSOFTHEBUSINESSENVIRONMENTAREOFTENCLUSTERSPECIFICTHESECONSTITUTESOMEOFTHEMOSTIMPORTANTMICROECONOMICFOUNDATIONSFORCOMPETITIONCLUSTERSAFFECTCOMPETITIONINTHREEBROADWAYSFIRST,BYINCREASINGTHEPRODUCTIVITYOFCOMPANIESBASEDINTHEAREASECOND,BYDRIVIN
20、GTHEDIRECTIONANDPACEOFINNOVATION,WHICHUNDERPINSFUTUREPRODUCTIVITYGROWTHANDTHIRD,BYSTIMULATINGTHEFORMATIONOFNEWBUSINESSES,WHICHEXPANDSANDSTRENGTHENSTHECLUSTERITSELFACLUSTERALLOWSEACHMEMBERTOBENEFITASIFITHADGREATERSCALEORASIFITHADJOINEDWITHOTHERSFORMALLYWITHOUTREQUIRINGITTOSACRIFICEITSFLEXIBILITYCLUST
21、ERSANDPRODUCTIVITYBEINGPARTOFACLUSTERALLOWSCOMPANIESTOOPERATEMOREPRODUCTIVELYINSOURCINGINPUTSACCESSINGINFORMATION,TECHNOLOGY,ANDNEEDEDINSTITUTIONSCOORDINATINGWITHRELATEDCOMPANIESANDMEASURINGANDMOTIVATINGIMPROVEMENTBETTERACCESSTOEMPLOYEESANDSUPPLIERSCOMPANIESINVIBRANTCLUSTERSCANTAPINTOANEXISTINGPOOLO
22、FSPECIALIZEDANDEXPERIENCEDEMPLOYEES,THEREBYLOWERINGTHEIRSEARCHANDTRANSACTIONCOSTSINRECRUITINGBECAUSEACLUSTERSIGNALSOPPORTUNITYANDREDUCESTHERISKOFRELOCATIONFOREMPLOYEES,ITCANALSOBEEASIERTOATTRACTTALENTEDPEOPLEFROMOTHERLOCATIONS,ADECISIVEADVANTAGEINSOMEINDUSTRIESAWELLDEVELOPEDCLUSTERALSOPROVIDESANEFFI
23、CIENTMEANSOFOBTAININGOTHERIMPORTANTINPUTSSUCHACLUSTEROFFERSADEEPANDSPECIALIZEDSUPPLIERBASESOURCINGLOCALLYINSTEADOFFROMDISTANTSUPPLIERSLOWERSTRANSACTIONCOSTSITMINIMIZESTHENEEDFORINVENTORY,ELIMINATESIMPORTINGCOSTSANDDELAYS,ANDBECAUSELOCALREPUTATIONISIMPORTANTLOWERSTHERISKTHATSUPPLIERSWILLOVERPRICEORRE
24、NEGEONCOMMITMENTSPROXIMITYIMPROVESCOMMUNICATIONSANDMAKESITEASIERFORSUPPLIERSTOPROVIDEANCILLARYORSUPPORTSERVICESSUCHASINSTALLATIONANDDEBUGGINGOTHERTHINGSBEINGEQUAL,THEN,LOCALOUTSOURCINGISABETTERSOLUTIONTHANDISTANTOUTSOURCING,ESPECIALLYFORADVANCEDANDSPECIALIZEDINPUTSINVOLVINGEMBEDDEDTECHNOLOGY,INFORMA
25、TION,ANDSERVICECONTENTFORMALALLIANCESWITHDISTANTSUPPLIERSCANMITIGATESOMEOFTHEDISADVANTAGESOFDISTANTOUTSOURCINGBUTALLFORMALALLIANCESINVOLVETHEIROWNCOMPLEXBARGAININGANDGOVERNANCEPROBLEMSANDCANINHIBITACOMPANYSFLEXIBILITYTHECLOSE,INFORMALRELATIONSHIPSPOSSIBLEAMONGCOMPANIESINACLUSTERAREOFTENASUPERIORARRA
26、NGEMENTINMANYCASES,CLUSTERSAREALSOABETTERALTERNATIVETOVERTICALINTEGRATIONCOMPAREDWITHINHOUSEUNITS,OUTSIDESPECIALISTSAREOFTENMORECOSTEFFECTIVEANDRESPONSIVE,NOTONLYINCOMPONENTPRODUCTIONBUTALSOINSERVICESSUCHASTRAININGALTHOUGHEXTENSIVEVERTICALINTEGRATIONMAYHAVEONCEBEENTHENORM,AFASTCHANGINGENVIRONMENTCAN
27、RENDERVERTICALINTEGRATIONINEFFICIENT,INEFFECTIVE,ANDINFLEXIBLEEVENWHENSOMEINPUTSAREBESTSOURCEDFROMADISTANCE,CLUSTERSOFFERADVANTAGESSUPPLIERSTRYINGTOPENETRATEALARGE,CONCENTRATEDMARKETWILLPRICEMOREAGGRESSIVELY,KNOWINGTHATASTHEYDOSOTHEYCANREALIZEEFFICIENCIESINMARKETINGANDINSERVICEWORKINGAGAINSTACLUSTER
28、SADVANTAGESINASSEMBLINGRESOURCESISTHEPOSSIBILITYTHATCOMPETITIONWILLRENDERTHEMMOREEXPENSIVEANDSCARCEBUTCOMPANIESDOHAVETHEALTERNATIVEOFOUTSOURCINGMANYINPUTSFROMOTHERLOCATIONS,WHICHTENDSTOLIMITPOTENTIALCOSTPENALTIESMOREIMPORTANT,CLUSTERSINCREASENOTONLYTHEDEMANDFORSPECIALIZEDINPUTSBUTALSOTHEIRSUPPLYACCE
29、SSTOSPECIALIZEDINFORMATIONEXTENSIVEMARKET,TECHNICAL,ANDCOMPETITIVEINFORMATIONACCUMULATESWITHINACLUSTER,ANDMEMBERSHAVEPREFERREDACCESSTOITINADDITION,PERSONALRELATIONSHIPSANDCOMMUNITYTIESFOSTERTRUSTANDFACILITATETHEFLOWOFINFORMATIONTHESECONDITIONSMAKEINFORMATIONMORETRANSFERABLECOMPLEMENTARITIESAHOSTOFLI
30、NKAGESAMONGCLUSTERMEMBERSRESULTSINAWHOLEGREATERTHANTHESUMOFITSPARTSINATYPICALTOURISMCLUSTER,FOREXAMPLE,THEQUALITYOFAVISITORSEXPERIENCEDEPENDSNOTONLYONTHEAPPEALOFTHEPRIMARYATTRACTIONBUTALSOONTHEQUALITYANDEFFICIENCYOFCOMPLEMENTARYBUSINESSESSUCHASHOTELS,RESTAURANTS,SHOPPINGOUTLETS,ANDTRANSPORTATIONFACI
31、LITIESBECAUSEMEMBERSOFTHECLUSTERAREMUTUALLYDEPENDENT,GOODPERFORMANCEBYONECANBOOSTTHESUCCESSOFTHEOTHERSCOMPLEMENTARITIESCOMEINMANYFORMSTHEMOSTOBVIOUSISWHENPRODUCTSCOMPLEMENTONEANOTHERINMEETINGCUSTOMERSNEEDS,ASTHETOURISMEXAMPLEILLUSTRATESANOTHERFORMISTHECOORDINATIONOFACTIVITIESACROSSCOMPANIESTOOPTIMIZ
32、ETHEIRCOLLECTIVEPRODUCTIVITYINWOODPRODUCTS,FORINSTANCE,THEEFFICIENCYOFSAWMILLSDEPENDSONARELIABLESUPPLYOFHIGHQUALITYTIMBERANDTHEABILITYTOPUTALLTHETIMBERTOUSEINFURNITUREHIGHESTQUALITY,PALLETSANDBOXESLOWERQUALITY,ORWOODCHIPSLOWESTQUALITYINTHEEARLY1990S,PORTUGUESESAWMILLSSUFFEREDFROMPOORTIMBERQUALITYBEC
33、AUSELOCALLANDOWNERSDIDNOTINVESTINTIMBERMANAGEMENTHENCEMOSTTIMBERWASPROCESSEDFORUSEINPALLETSANDBOXES,ALOWERVALUEUSETHATLIMITEDTHEPRICEPAIDTOLANDOWNERSSUBSTANTIALIMPROVEMENTINPRODUCTIVITYWASPOSSIBLE,BUTONLYIFSEVERALPARTSOFTHECLUSTERCHANGEDSIMULTANEOUSLYLOGGINGOPERATIONS,FOREXAMPLE,HADTOMODIFYCUTTINGAN
34、DSORTINGPROCEDURES,WHILESAWMILLSHADTODEVELOPTHECAPACITYTOPROCESSWOODINMORESOPHISTICATEDWAYSCOORDINATIONTODEVELOPSTANDARDWOODCLASSIFICATIONSANDMEASURESWASANIMPORTANTENABLINGSTEPGEOGRAPHICALLYDISPERSEDCOMPANIESARELESSLIKELYTORECOGNIZEANDCAPTURESUCHLINKAGESOTHERCOMPLEMENTARITIESARISEINMARKETINGACLUSTER
35、FREQUENTLYENHANCESTHEREPUTATIONOFALOCATIONINAPARTICULARFIELD,MAKINGITMORELIKELYTHATBUYERSWILLTURNTOAVENDORBASEDTHEREITALYSSTRONGREPUTATIONFORFASHIONANDDESIGN,FOREXAMPLE,BENEFITSCOMPANIESINVOLVEDINLEATHERGOODS,FOOTWEAR,APPAREL,ANDACCESSORIESBEYONDREPUTATION,CLUSTERMEMBERSOFTENPROFITFROMAVARIETYOFJOIN
36、TMARKETINGMECHANISMS,SUCHASCOMPANYREFERRALS,TRADEFAIRS,TRADEMAGAZINES,ANDMARKETINGDELEGATIONSFINALLY,COMPLEMENTARITIESCANMAKEBUYINGFROMACLUSTERMOREATTRACTIVEFORCUSTOMERSVISITINGBUYERSCANSEEMANYVENDORSINASINGLETRIPTHEYALSOMAYPERCEIVETHEIRBUYINGRISKTOBELOWERBECAUSEONELOCATIONPROVIDESALTERNATIVESUPPLIE
37、RSTHATALLOWSTHEMTOMULTISOURCEORTOSWITCHVENDORSIFTHENEEDARISESHONGKONGTHRIVESASASOURCEOFFASHIONAPPARELINPARTFORTHISREASONACCESSTOINSTITUTIONSANDPUBLICGOODSINVESTMENTSMADEBYGOVERNMENTOROTHERPUBLICINSTITUTIONSSUCHASPUBLICSPENDINGFORSPECIALIZEDINFRASTRUCTUREOREDUCATIONALPROGRAMSCANENHANCEACOMPANYSPRODUC
38、TIVITYTHEABILITYTORECRUITEMPLOYEESTRAINEDATLOCALPROGRAMS,FOREXAMPLE,LOWERSTHECOSTOFINTERNALTRAININGOTHERQUASIPUBLICGOODS,SUCHASTHECLUSTERSINFORMATIONANDTECHNOLOGYPOOLSANDITSREPUTATION,ARISEASNATURALBYPRODUCTSOFCOMPETITIONITISNOTJUSTGOVERNMENTSTHATCREATEPUBLICGOODSTHATENHANCEPRODUCTIVITYINTHEPRIVATES
39、ECTORINVESTMENTSBYCOMPANIESINTRAININGPROGRAMS,INFRASTRUCTURE,QUALITYCENTERS,TESTINGLABORATORIES,ANDSOONALSOCONTRIBUTETOINCREASEDPRODUCTIVITYSUCHPRIVATEINVESTMENTSAREOFTENMADECOLLECTIVELYBECAUSECLUSTERPARTICIPANTSRECOGNIZETHEPOTENTIALFORCOLLECTIVEBENEFITSBETTERMOTIVATIONANDMEASUREMENTLOCALRIVALRYISHI
40、GHLYMOTIVATINGPEERPRESSUREAMPLIFIESCOMPETITIVEPRESSUREWITHINACLUSTER,EVENAMONGNONCOMPETINGORINDIRECTLYCOMPETINGCOMPANIESPRIDEANDTHEDESIRETOLOOKGOODINTHELOCALCOMMUNITYSPUREXECUTIVESTOATTEMPTTOOUTDOONEANOTHERCLUSTERSALSOOFTENMAKEITEASIERTOMEASUREANDCOMPAREPERFORMANCESBECAUSELOCALRIVALSSHAREGENERALCIRC
41、UMSTANCESFOREXAMPLE,LABORCOSTSANDLOCALMARKETACCESSANDTHEYPERFORMSIMILARACTIVITIESCOMPANIESWITHINCLUSTERSTYPICALLYHAVEINTIMATEKNOWLEDGEOFTHEIRSUPPLIERSCOSTSMANAGERSAREABLETOCOMPARECOSTSANDEMPLOYEESPERFORMANCEWITHOTHERLOCALCOMPANIESADDITIONALLY,FINANCIALINSTITUTIONSCANACCUMULATEKNOWLEDGEABOUTTHECLUSTE
42、RTHATCANBEUSEDTOMONITORPERFORMANCESOURCEPORTERMECLUSTERSANDTHENEWECONOMICSOFCOMPETITIONJHARVARDBUSINESSREVIEW,1998,766,PP7883二、翻译文章标题集群和新竞争经济学译文一、什么是集群产业集群是指与某一产业有关的企业和机构在地理位置上的集中，它包括一批对竞争起作用的、相互联系的产业和其他实体，例如包括零部件、机器和服务等专业化投入的供应商和专业基础设施的提供者。集群还经常延伸到下游渠道和客户，横向到互补产品的制造商，并通过技能，技术，或共同投入延伸到相关行业的公司。最后，许多集
43、群包括政府和其他机构,例如大学，标准制定机构，智囊团，职业培训机构，贸易协会，他们提供专业的培训，教育，信息，研究和技术支持。加州葡萄酒集群是一个很好的例子。它包括680个商业酒厂以及数千名独立的酿酒用葡萄种植者。（参照展览“加州葡萄酒集群的解剖。”），它是涵盖酒类制造和葡萄种植的的一个广泛的补充，包括葡萄播种，灌溉，收获的设备，桶和标签的供应商；以及专门的公共关系，广告公司和众多的针对消费者和贸易观众的酒类出版物。很多本地机构的领导者都与葡萄酒相联系着，如世界著名的葡萄种植，和加州大学戴维斯分校葡萄酒学院的ENOLOGY计划，以及加州参议院和议会的专门委员会。该集群还与加州其他的产业集群在农
44、业，食品和饭店和葡萄酒乡村旅游有或多或少的联系。意大利皮革时装产业集群也是同样的，它包含FERRAGAMO和古奇等知名制鞋企业，以及提供鞋类配件，机械，模具，设计服务和鞣革的专业的供应商。（参照展览“映射意大利皮革服装集群。”）它还由几个相关产业链组成，包括生产不同类型的皮革制品（由共同投入和技术相连）和不同类型的鞋类（由重叠的渠道和技术相连）。这些行业采用普通的营销媒体，在相似的市场细分中与相似的映像相竞争。一个相关的意大利集群在纺织服装，包括服装，围巾和配件，互补性的产品，往往采用普通渠道。意大利皮革时装集群非凡的实力可以部分的归因于意大利企业乐于参与的多重联系和多方协作。群集的边界由各种
45、的联系和在竞争中最重要的互补的各行业和机构所界定。虽然集群往往是合适于政治范畴的，但是他们可以跨州，甚至国界。在美国，例如，制药集群跨越新泽西和宾夕法尼亚州到费城。同样的，德国的化工集群也可以跨越到瑞士德语区。集群很少符合标准工业分类系统，该系统在竞争中并不能获取到许多重要行为主体和关系。因此，重要的集群可能被隐藏甚至未被认识到。在马萨诸塞州，例如，超过400家公司，至少39,000个高薪工作为代表，都以某种方式从事了医疗设备。群集是长期存在的，但是是隐藏的，仍然掩埋在在较大的重叠的工业门类之下，例如电子设备和塑料制品。集群中的医疗设备管理人员最近才一起对这一问题进行研究，这将有益于他们所有的
46、人。集群促进竞争与合作。竞争对手激烈的竞争，赢得并留住客户。没有激烈的竞争，集群将失败。然而，也有合作，他们许多是垂直性的涉及相关产业和地方机构的公司。竞争与合作共存，因为他们发生在不同层面不同的成员之间。集群代表在某方面和层次上的公平市场之中的一种新的空间组织形式，另一方面或是垂直整合。一个集群，是一个组织价值链的替代方式。与分散和随机买家和卖家中的市场交易相比，公司和机构在一个位置接近，以及它们之间反复交流，能够促进更好的协调和信任。因此集群能减轻因为距离而产生的内在问题，不附加任何固有的缺乏灵活性的垂直整合，或创建和维护有正式联系的管理挑战，如网络，联盟和伙伴关系。一个存在于独立、非正式
47、联系的公司和机构中的集群，代表一组强大的组织形式，这种组织形式具有能够提供效率，有效性和灵活性的优势。二、为什么集群在竞争中很关键现代竞争取决于生产力，而不是依靠投入或个别企业的规模。生产力取决于公司如何竞争，而不是在所竞争的特定的领域。公司可以成为高生产力的，例如在鞋、农业或半导体方面，如果他们采用先进的方法，采用先进的技术，并提供独特的产品和服务。所有行业可以采用先进技术，所有的行业可以是知识密集型的。但是，公司在某一特定领域竞争的水平高度，受到地商业环境质量的强烈影响。一方面，例如，没有一个高质量的运输基础设施，公司就不能采用到先进的物流技术。另一方面，离开了受过良好教育的员工，遇到复杂
48、的服务也不能有效地竞争。在繁文缛节或不能迅速和公平地解决纠纷的法院系统的监管下，企业无法有效运作。商业环境的一些方面，如法律制度，例如，或企业所得税率，对各行业行业都有影响。然而，在发达经济体中，商业环境中起决定性部分的往往是特定的集群，这些构成了竞争的最重要的微观经济基础的部分。集群影响竞争的三大主要方式第一，通过增加在该地区的企业的生产力第二，引导方向和创新的步伐，这是能加强未来生产率增长的基础第三，刺激新企业的形成，这些新企业能够扩大和壮大集群本身的发展。群集允许每个成员受益，如果他们具有更大的规模，或如果他们已经加入了其他组织形式，都无需失去其灵活性。集群和生产力。作为群集的一部分，允
49、许企业在采购运作上更有效率的投入获取信息，技术和必要机构，与相关公司协调；并测量和激励进步改善。更好地获得员工和供应商。公司在充满活力的集群里可以更方便的寻找专业和经验丰富的员工，从而降低他们在招聘中的搜索和交易成本。由于集群标志着机会，并减少了寻找的风险，也可以更容易吸引其他地点的在一些行业起决定性的作用的有潜力的人才。发达的群集还提供了其他重要的获得投入的有效手段。这种集群提供了一个深入的和专业的供应商基地。就地取材，而不是从遥远的供应商那里降低交易成本。它最大限度地减少库存的需要，消除了进口费用和延误成本，而且因为当地的名声是重要的，如果降低了风险，供应商将提价或违背承诺。改善通讯状况，对供应商来说，更容易提供配套设施和服务支持，例如安装和调试。其他因素不变，那么，本地外包比外地外包更能解决问题，尤其是先进的专业的解决嵌入式技术，信息和服务内容的投入。正式联盟与外地的的供应商一起可以减轻对外地外包的一些不利。但是，所有正式联盟都有自己内部复杂的谈判和管治问题，这些会抑制公司的灵活性。最后，集群中企业之间非正式关系往往可能能达成很好的协议。在许多情况下，集群对于垂直整合也是一个更好的选择。与单位内部相比，外部专家往往更符合成本效益和更积极响应，不仅在组件生产，而且在诸如培训的服务方面都是如此。尽管广泛的垂直整合可能曾是一个
