1、外文题目THEOBJECTIVESOFINTERNATIONALFINANCIALREGULATION出处GLOBALFINANCIALREGULATIONTHEESSENTIALGUIDE作者HOWARDDAVIES,DAVIDGREEN原文ATTHEBEGINNINGOFTHETWENTYFIRSTCENTURYFINANCIALMARKETSAREMOREINTERNATIONALTHANEVERBEFORECAPITALMARKETSWEREHIGHLYINTEGRATEDBEFORETHEFIRSTWORDWAR,WITHMASSIVEFLOWSOFFUNDSFROMDEVELOPE
2、DTODEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES,BUTTHEDEGREEOFINTEGRATIONFELLSHARPLYDURINGTHENEXTFIFTYYEARSANDCAPITALMOVEMENTSWEREOFTENHIGHLYCONTROLLEDNOW,HOWEVER,GLOBALIZEDCAPITALMARKETSAREBACK,BUTWITHADIFFERENCECAPITALTRANSACTIONSSEEMTOBEMOSTLYARICHRICHAFFAIR,APPROCESSOFDIVERSIFICATIONFINANCERATHERTHANDEVELOPMENTFINANCEIT
3、ISNOTTRUETOSAY,ASSOMEDO,THATWELIVEINABORDERLESSWORLD,BUTFINANCECERTAINLYFLOWSMOREEASILYACROSSBORDERSTHANDOGOODSORSERVICESTHECHANNELSOFFINANCIALINTERMEDIATIONHAVEALSOCHANGEDWHICHONLYTWENTYYEARSAGOMOSTBUSINESSFLOWEDTHROUGHTHEBALANCESHEETSOFBANKSORINSURANCECOMPANIES,ORTHROUGHALIMITEDRANGEOFINVESTMENTFU
4、NDSUSUALLYDEALINGINPRODUCTSTRADEDONREGULATEDMARKETS,THEEXPLOSIVEINCREASEINWEALTHHELDPRIVATELYPARTLYASARESULTOFGREATERDISPERSIONOFINCOMEHASLEDTOTHECREATIONOFAWIDERANGEOFOTHERINVESTMENTVEHICLES,OFWHICHHEDGEFUNDSANDPRIVATEEQUITYARETHEMOSTPROMINENT,FUNDEDBYHIGHNETWORTHINVESTORSANDORGANIZEDONANINFORMAL,L
5、ARGELYUNREGULATEDBASISNOWINSTRUMENTSHAVEEMERGEDWHICHMAKEITPOSSIBLETOTRANSFERRISKOFALLKINDSONAFARLARGERSCALEANDINMORECOMPLEXWAYS,NOTSOLELYTHROUGHSTANDARDIZEDEXCHANGETRADEDDERIVATIVES,BUTTHROUGHANALMOSTINFINITERANGEOFBESPOKE,OVERTHECOUNTERARRANGEMENTSCDOS,SYNTHETICCDOSANDTHELIKEINSOMECASESBANKSHOLDTHE
6、MINOFFBALANCESHEETVEHICLESWHILETHESEINSTRUMENTSMAKEITPOSSIBLETOLAYOFFRISKOVERAVASTLYGREATERRANGEOFRISKBEARERS,WHICHPROBABLYINCREASESTHESYSTEMSRESILIENCE,THEYALSOMEANTHATWHENRISKSCRYSTALLIZETHEYMAYWELLHAVEANIMPACTINHITHERTOUNFAMILIARPLACES,ANYWHEREINTHEGLOBETHEYMAYMAKEITEASIERTORIDETHROUGHSMALLCRISES
7、,BUTLARGEONESWILLHAVEMANYMOREDIMENSIONSOFWHICHWECURRENTLYHAVENOKNOWLEDGETHISMATTERS,BECAUSETHELASTTENYEARSORSODURINGWHICHTHESEMARKETSHAVEEVOLVEDHAVEALSOBEENREMARKABLYBENIGNINFINANCIALTERMS,BUTCHARACTERIZEDBYREADYAVAILABILITYOFCREDITONANUNPRECEDENTEDSCALEANDCONSEQUENTLYINSOMESECTORSBYUNPRECEDENTEDLEV
8、ELSOFDEBTBECAUSEOFTHESTRUCTURALCHANGESWHICHHAVETAKENPLACE,THEWAYSINWHICHLENDERSANDBORROWERSWILLREACTINTHEFACEOFANYMAJORSHOCKORPROLONGEDDOWNTURNWILLTESTTHEFINANCIALARCHITECTUREINWAYSFORWHICHTHEEXISTINGTHEFINANCIALARCHITECTUREINWAYSFORWHICHTHEEXISTINGARRANGEMENTSMAYBEUNPREPAREDTHEREAREOTHERNEWFEATURES
9、OFGLOBALCAPITALMARKETSTHEMOSTIMPORTANTISTHEGROWINGDOMINANCEOFASMALLNUMBEROFHUGEINSTITUTIONSAHANDFULOFBULGEBRACKETINVESTMENTBANKSDOMINATETHEMAJORMARKETSINCORPORATEANDSOVEREIGNDEBTANDEQUITY,MOSTOFTHEMHEADQUARTEREDINTHEUNITEDSTATESSOMECOMMERCIALBANKSLIKECITIGROUPANDHSBCHAVEBUILTSIGNIFICANTMARKETSHARESI
10、NMANYCOUNTRIESDOMESTICMARKETSINAFEWLARGECOUNTRIES,SUCHASPOLANDANDMEXICO,THEMAJORITYOFDOMESTICBANKINGISUNDERTAKENBYSUBSIDIARIESOFOVERSEASINSTITUTIONSTHEEMERGENCEOFHOSTILECROSSBORDERBANKTAKEOVERS,PREVIOUSLYUNKNOWN,WILLACCELERATETHATTRENDNOWEVENNATIONALVIRILITY,LIKETHEFLAGCARRIERAIRLINE,AREOWNEDBYFOREI
11、GNINTERESTSEURONEXT,WHICHINCLUDESTHENATIONALEXCHANGESOFFRANCE,BELGIUM,THENETHERLANDSANDPORTUGAL,ASWELLASTHEUKFUTURESEXCHANGE,HASBEENBOUGHTBYTHENEWYORKSTOCKEXCHANGEASMALLNUMBEROFMARKETPLACES,NOTABLYNEWYORKANDLONDON,INCREASINGLYDOMINATETRANSACTIONSINBOTHCASHANDDERIVATIVESMARKETSTECHNOLOGYHASALLOWEDTHE
12、MTOTAKEONADDITIONALBUSINESSFROMANYWHEREINTHEGLOBEATVERYLOWCOSTTHAT,COMBINEDWITHTHESEARCHFORSPEEDANDLIQUIDITY,ANDAKINDOFWINNERTAKESALLPHENOMENON,ISDRIVINGFURTHERGEOGRAPHICALCONCENTRATIONBUTASCONCENTRATIONINTHEFINANCIALINDUSTRYHASGROWN,THEGLOBALECONOMYITSELFHASBECOMEMULTIPOLARECONOMICACTIVITYISNOLONGE
13、RDOMINATEDBYTHEUNITEDSTATESANDEUROPE,BUTSPREADMUCHMOREBROADLY,INCLUDINGACROSSMARKETSONCEDESCRIBEDASEMERGINGTHUSTHEREHAVEBEENFUNDAMENTALCHANGESINBOTHFINANCIALARCHITECTUREANDINTHEREALECONOMY,BUTNOALIGNMENTBETWEENTHETWOTHEEBBANDFLOWOFTHISDEBATEISFAMILIARAFTEREVERYFINANCIALCRISISTHEREARECALLSFORREGULATI
14、ONTOBERATCHETEDUPAFEWYEARSLATERAREGULATIONBEINGSTOEMERGE,ASTHECOSTSBECOMEEVIDENT,ANDTHEBENEFITSARELESSSOATPRESENT,THEPENDULUMISSWINGINGVIOLENTLYREGULATEDFIRMSANDMARKETSTHINKTHEYAREOVERCONTROLLED,WHILEMANYPOLITICIANS,BYCONTRAST,THINKTHEREISTOOMUCHSCOPETOAVOIDREGULATION,ANDTOOMUCHEVIDENCEOFINVESTORDET
15、RIMENTANDUNJUSTIFIEDENRICHMENTONTHEPARTOFFINANCIALSECTORPROFESSIONALSTHERECENTSUBPRIMEMORTGAGECRISISINTHEUNITEDSTATES,WHICHSPREADTOOTHERMARKETS,WASATESTCASEFORTHESEARGUMENTSTHEREISNODOUBTTHATREGULATIONIMPOSESHIGHCOSTSONFINANCIALINSTITUTIONSANDMARKETS,COSTSWHICHAREULTIMATELYPASSEDTHROUGHTOTHEENDUSERI
16、TISALSOCLEARTHATEXCESSIVEREGULATIONCANDAMAGETHEFUNCTIONINGOFFINANCIALMARKETSANDREDUCETHEIRECONOMICUTILITYINANYSYSTEMOFREGULATION,THEREISBALANCETOBESTRUCKBETWEENSAFETYANDSOUNDNESSONTHEONEHANDANDRISKTAKINGONTHEOTHERTHEINCIDENCEOFBANKANDINSURANCECOMPANYFAILUREMIGHTBESIGNIFICANTLYREDUCEDBYTIGHTERCAPITAL
17、REQUIREMENTS,BUTTHERETURNSAVAILABLETODEPOSITORSANDPOLICYHOLDERSWILLBECORRESPONDINGLYREDUCEDTHETERMSONWHICHINVESTMENTSCANBEOFFEREDTOTHEPUBLICCANBERESTRICTED,BUTTHEOPPORTUNITYTODIVERSIFYINTOMOREPROFITABLEASSETSISALSOCORRESPONDINGLYCONSTRAINEDINRECENTYEARSHEDGEFUNDSHAVE,ASACLASS,OUTPERFORMEDREGULATEDCO
18、LLECTIVEINVESTMENTSCHEMES,YETRETAILINVESTORSHAVETYPICALLYNOTBEENABLETOACCESSTHEMDIRECTLYTHEGLOBALCOMMITTEES,WHOSESTRUCTUREISROOTEDINANOLDFASHIONEDBREAKDOWNOFFINANCIALACTIVITYINTOTHETHREESECTORSOFBANKING,INSURANCEANDSECURITIES,NEEDRADICALREFORMIFTHEYARETOKEEPPACEWITHTHERAPIDEVOLUTIONOFFINANCIALMARKET
19、STHEMARKETTURMOILOFTHESUMMEROF2007,ORIGINATINGINTHEUSSUBPRIMEMORTGAGEMARKET,DEMONSTRATEDVIVIDLYTHATTHETECHNOLOGYOFCREDITTRANSFERHADDEVELOPEDTOTHEPOINTWHEREITISOFTENHARDTODETERMINEWHERERISKSNOWLIEANDITISQUITEIMPOSSIBLEFORTHEREGULATOROFASINGLESECTORTODOSOTHESCALEOFFINANCIALMARKETACTIVITIESHASESCALATED
20、DRAMATICALLYINRECENTYEARSMCKINSEYANDCOMPANYESTIMATETHATGLOBALFINANCIALASSETSHAVEMORETHANDOUBLEDINTHELASTTENYEARS,ANDARESETTOINCREASEBYAFURTHER50PERCENTBYTHEENDOFTHISDECADEITISTHEREFORENOTSURPRISINGTHATAREGULATORYSYSTEMDESIGNEDSOMETIMEAGOISBEGINNINGTOCREAKFURTHERMORE,THEGROWTHOFCROSSBORDERFINANCIALAC
21、TIVITYISEVENMORERAPIDINTERNATIONALCAPITALFLOWSHAVEBEENEXPANDINGATOVER10PERCENTAYEAROVERTHELASTFIFTEENYEARSSOTHEINTERNATIONALDIMENSIONOFFINANCIALREGULATIONISNOLONGERAMARGINALADDONTOTHEDOMESTICREGIME,ASITHASLONGBEENSEENINTHEUSITISTHECENTRALQUESTIONINFINANCIALMARKETSTODAY外文题目THEOBJECTIVESOFINTERNATIONA
22、LFINANCIALREGULATION出处GLOBALFINANCIALREGULATIONTHEESSENTIALGUIDE作者HOWARDDAVIES,DAVIDGREEN译文进入21世纪后,金融市场的国际化程度空前提高。早在第一次世界大战前,资本市场就已经高度融合大量的资金从发达国家流入发展中国家,但在随后的五十年里,资本市场的融合进程大幅退步,资金的流动通常受到严格的控制。然后,现在“全球化的资本市场再度形成,但具有新的特点资本交易已不像以前那样出于开发性融资的目的,而是转向富国之间的多元化投资。我们并没有像一些人说的,已经生活在一个无国界的世界里,但比起货物与服务而言,金融资源确实
23、更容易在国家之间流动。金融中介发挥作用的渠道也已经发生改变。二十年前,大部分的商业融资都体现在银行或是保险公司的资产负债表上,有时也来自于数量有限的几家投资基金公司,这些公司所交易的市场通常受到严格管制。但是,私人财富爆炸式增长(一定程度上也是收入分配不均的结果),催生了大量种类繁多的投资载体,其中对冲基金和私募股权基金最为引人注目。这两种载体的投资者都掌握着巨额财富,但其组织形式随意且几乎不受监管。新的金融工具的产生,使得各种金融风险以更加复杂的方式大范围地转移。这些工具除了在交易所内交易的标准化衍生产品外,还包括大量按需定制的场外交易工具,例如抵押债务权证(CDO)与复合抵押债务权证(SY
24、NTHETICCDOS)等。有时,银行也通过表外投资载体持有这些衍生产品。上述衍生产品可以将风险转移给更大范围的风险持有者,虽然这能够增强金融系统的风险抵抗能力,但当风险凸显的时候,世界上任何一个地方都有可能受到冲击。小范围的危机可能还好应对,但大的危机出现时,这些复杂的衍生工具可能会给我们带来更多意想不到的新问题。这一点非常重要,因为金融市场在过去十多年虽然受益于衍生产品的发展,但与此同时也出现了前所未有的信用过度扩张和由此造成的部分行业过度负债的局面。由于市场的这种结构性改变,当面对任何重大冲击或持续的经济不景气时,借贷双方所采取的应对方式将对金融基础设施形成考验,而现在的体系应该说并未做
25、好准备。全球资本市场还呈现出了一些新的特点。其中,最重要的一点就是少数大型机构的市场控制力不断增强。少数投资银行控制了公司和主权债务以及股票市场,而这些投资银行的总部大多设在美国。一些商业银行,如花旗银行和汇丰银行,在许多国家都获得了可观的市场份额。在一些规模较大的国家,如波兰和墨西哥,其本土银行市场已经被海外银行的分支机构所控制。敌意跨国银行收购的出现将会加快这一趋势。曾经被看做一个国家主权代表的证券交易公司(就像是贴着国旗的航空公司一样)也被各个外国资本所控制。拥有法国、比利时、荷兰和葡萄牙国家证券交易所和英国期货交易所的“泛欧交易所”已经被纽约证券交易所收购。少数几个地区的金融市场,如纽
26、约和伦敦,对全球现金和衍生产品市场的控制仍在不断增强技术进步使得它们以极低的交易成本在全球任何地方获得更多的生意;加之市场对流动性与速度的追求以及普遍存在“胜者为王”的心态,加速了金融市场在地理区位上的进一步集聚。金融市场区域集中的趋势在不断加强,但全球经济本身却正在走向多极化。经济活动不再由美国和欧洲主宰,而是向更大范围扩散,延伸到了那些曾经被认为是新兴经济的市场中。并且,金融体系与实体经济格局都发生了根本性变革,但两者的变革却并不一致。关于金融监管的讨论从来没有停止过。每爆发一次金融危机,就会有人呐喊加强金融监管,若干年后,当监管的成本越来越难以承受、收益越来越少时,又会出现削弱监管的呼声
27、。目前,这种钟摆式的晃动非常明显被监管的企业和市场认为自己被过度控制;相反,许多政治家们又认为正是由于现行监管尚存在诸多空白,被监管机构可以逃避监管,从而导致投资者利益受损以及金融从业者不合理的暴富事件大量出现。近期爆发于美国并已传播到其他市场的次贷危机就是关于这个争论的典型案例。无疑,金融监管会给金融机构带来高成本,而这些成本最终是由消费者承担的。“过度”的监管势必会削弱金融市场功能,降低经济效用。任何监管制度都必须平衡两方面的因素一是安全与稳健,二是风险承担。提高资本肯定会降低银行和保险公司倒闭的概率,但是存款人和保单持有人的收益则会相应减少。如果对公众的投资渠道进行限制,那么公众投资于更
28、多高收益资产的机会就会相应减少。例如,近年来,对冲基金的经营业绩远超过其他受监管的机构,但是零售投资者通常不能直接投资对冲基金。由于各类国际组织是基于传统上的银行、证券、保险分业经营模式而搭建的,若想让它们保持与快速发展的金融市场同步前进,就必须对其进行大刀阔斧的改革。2007年夏天由美国次级住房抵押贷款市场引发的金融动荡足以表明,信用转移技术的发展已经导致人们很难识别风险所在,对单一行业的监管者尤为如此。近年来,金融市场的规模迅速扩大。麦肯锡咨询公司的数据表明,全球金融资产在近十年中已增长了两倍有余,且预计到2010年还将进一步增长50。因此,多年前设计的监管体系无可避免的开始失去意义。此外,跨境金融活动的增长更为迅猛国际资本流动在近十五年中以年均超过10的速度扩张。所以,国际金融监管虽然曾经只是作为各国监管如美国的一个或有或无的补充,但它目前已成为金融市场所关注的核心问题。