1、外文翻译原文THESOURCESOFINNOVATIONMATERIALSOURCEUNIVERSITYOFCALIFORNIAAUTHORERICVONHIPPEL1OVERVIEWITHASLONGBEENASSUMEDTHATPRODUCTINNOVATIONSARETYPICALLYDEVELOPEDBYPRODUCTMANUFACTURERSBECAUSETHISASSUMPTIONDEALSWITHTHEBASICMATTEROFWHOTHEINNOVATORIS,ITHASINEVITABLYHADAMAJORIMPACTONINNOVATIONRELATEDRESEARCH,O
2、NFIRMSMANAGEMENTOFRESEARCHANDDEVELOPMENT,ANDONGOVERNMENTINNOVATIONPOLICYHOWEVER,ITNOWAPPEARSTHATTHISBASICASSUMPTIONISOFTENWRONGINTHISBOOKIBEGINBYPRESENTINGASERIESOFSTUDIESSHOWINGTHATTHESOURCESOFINNOVATIONVARYGREATLYINSOMEFIELDS,INNOVATIONUSERSDEVELOPMOSTINNOVATIONSINOTHERS,SUPPLIERSOFINNOVATIONRELAT
3、EDCOMPONENTSANDMATERIALSARETHETYPICALSOURCESOFINNOVATIONINSTILLOTHERFIELDS,CONVENTIONALWISDOMHOLDSANDPRODUCTMANUFACTURERSAREINDEEDTHETYPICALINNOVATORSNEXT,IEXPLOREWHYTHISVARIATIONINTHEFUNCTIONALSOURCESOFINNOVATIONOCCURSANDHOWITMIGHTBEPREDICTEDFINALLY,IPROPOSEANDTESTSOMEIMPLICATIONSOFREPLACINGAMANUFA
4、CTURERASINNOVATORASSUMPTIONWITHAVIEWOFTHEINNOVATIONPROCESSASPREDICTABLYDISTRIBUTEDACROSSUSERS,MANUFACTURERS，SUPPLIERS,ANDOTHERS2VARIATIONSINTHEFUNCTIONALSOURCEOFINNOVATIONWEHAVESEENTHATUSERSSOMETIMESINNOVATEBUTDOTHEYALWAYSORDOESTHEFUNCTIONALSOURCEOFINNOVATIONVARYINSOMEMANNERBETWEENUSERS,MANUFACTURER
5、S,SUPPLIERS,ANDOTHERSTOBEABLETOANSWERTHESEQUESTIONS,WEMUSTHAVEDATAONTHESOURCESOFINNOVATIONCHARACTERISTICOFATLEASTAFEWMORETYPESOFINNOVATIONTHEREFORE,MYSTUDENTSANDIUNDERTOOKTHESIXBRIEFSTUDIESIWILLDESCRIBEINTHISCHAPTEREACHOFTHESIXSTUDIESEXAMINESADIFFERENTTYPEOFINNOVATIONTHEFIRSTFOURIWILLREVIEWCONSIDERI
6、NNOVATIONCATEGORIESCHOSENTOMATCHMYOWNAREASOFTECHNICALKNOWLEDGEANDTHOSEOFTHEGRADUATESTUDENTSPARTICIPATINGINOURPROJECTTHECHOICEOFTOPICSFORTHELASTTWOSTUDIESIWILLREVIEWWASMADEONADIFFERENTBASIS,WHICHIWILLSPELLOUTWHENDISCUSSINGTHEMEACHSTUDYUSESIDENTICALMETHODS,SOTHATTHEIRRESULTSARECOMMENSURABLE,4ANDEACHIS
7、TIGHTLYFOCUSEDONASINGLEISSUEWHATARETHESOURCESOFINNOVATIONTHESESTUDIESFINDTHATTHEFUNCTIONALSOURCEOFINNOVATIONDIFFERSSTRIKINGLYACROSSTHESEVERALTYPESOFPRODUCTANDPROCESSINNOVATIONIHAVEEXPLOREDMANUFACTURERSASINNOVATORSTHETRACTORSHOVELTHETRACTORSHOVELISAVERYUSEFULMACHINEOFTENUSEDINTHECONSTRUCTIONINDUSTRYI
8、NITIALCONVERSATIONSWITHEXPERTSINCONSTRUCTIONLEDUSTOSUSPECTTHATUSERSWOULDINFACTBEINNOVATORSINTRACTORSHOVELSEVERYONEHADASTORYTOTELLABOUTACONSTRUCTIONFIRMTHAT,FACINGANUNUSUALCHALLENGEANDATIGHTDEADLINE,PERFORMEDANOVERNIGHTMODIFICATIONTOSOMEITEMOFCONSTRUCTIONEQUIPMENTTHATSOLVEDTHEPROBLEMANDSAVEDTHEDAYINF
9、ACT,HOWEVER,TRACTORSHOVELMANUFACTURERSTURNEDOUTTOBETHEDOMINANTSOURCEOFCOMMERDALLYSUCCESSFULTRACTORSHOVELINNOVATIONSTHETRACTORSHOVELCANBEVISUALIZEDASAFOURWHEELED,RUBBERTIREDMACHINEWITHALARGE,MOVABLESCOOPMOUNTEDATTHEFRONTENDITISNORMALLYUSEDFOREXCAVATIONANDOTHERCONSTRUCTIONTASKSASWELLASFORTHEGENERALHAN
10、DLINGOFBULKMATERIALS,RANGINGFROMCOALTOCHEMICALSTOSOYBEANSHOUSEHOLDERSWHOLIVEINSTATESWITHSEVEREWINTERSMAYHAVEACLEARVISUALIMAGEOFTRACTORSHOVELSTHEYARETYPICALLYTHEMACHINESTHATDIGOUTROADSAFTERORDINARYTRUCKSHAVEBEENHALTEDBYDEEPSNOWTRACTORSHOVELSAREBUILTINMANYSIZESTODAY,ONECANFINDLARGETRACTORSHOVELSWITHMA
11、SSIVE,20CUYDSCOOPSWORKINGINOPENPITMINESLOADINGOREINTOTRUCKSONECANALSOFINDSMALLTRACTORSHOVELSWORKINGINWAREHOUSESSHIFTINGVARIOUSMATERIALSFROMPLACETOPLACE1CUYDATATIMEAPPROXIMATELY41,000TRACTORSHOVELSOFALLSIZESWEREMANUFACTUREDINTHEUNITEDSTATESIN1980,WITHANAGGREGATEVALUEOF15BILLIONDOLLARS5THESAMPLETHEBAS
12、ICTRACTORSHOVELWASDEVELOPEDIN1939THESAMPLECONSISTSOFTHATBASICINNOVATIONPLUSALLSIGNIFICANTIMPROVEMENTSTOTHETRACTORSHOVELCOMMERCIALIZEDPRIORTO19704THEMAJORIMPROVEMENTSCATEGORYINTABLE33CONSISTSOFINNOVATIONSTHATAREINSTALLEDINVIRTUALLYALLTRACTORSHOVELSANDTHATAREOFVALUETOESSENTIALLYALLUSERSFOREXAMPLE,ARTI
13、CULATION,ANINNOVATIONTHATHINGESTHETRACTORSHOVELINTHEMIDDLEANDGREATLYIMPROVESSTEERINGANDTRACTION,ISVALUABLETOESSENTIALLYALLUSERSANDISNOWINCORPORATEDINALMOSTALLTRACTORSHOVELSINCONTRAST,THESPECIALPURPOSEACCESSORIESLISTEDAREINNOVATIONSTHATAREONLYOFVALUEINSOMESPECIALIZEDTASKSTHUS,THELENGTHENEDBOOMARMSARE
14、USEDPRIMARILYBYTHOSEWHOLOADHIGHSIDEDTRUCKS,WHEREASTHELOGGRAPPLESAREPRIMARILYUSEDBYLUMBERCOMPANIESINTHEIRLOGGINGOPERATIONSOFCOURSE,MANYOTHERSPECIALPURPOSEACCESSORIESEXIST,RANGINGFROMASPHALTPAYERSTOSNOWBLOWERSTHEFIVECHOSENFORSTUDYSERVERELATIVELYLARGEUSERGROUPSFINDINGTHESOURCESOFTRACTORSHOVELINNOVATION
15、ASCANCLEARLYBESEENINTABLE34,ALMOSTALLOFTHEINNOVATIONSSTUDIEDWEREDEVELOPEDBYTRACTORSHOVELMANUFACTURERSINTWOINSTANCESTHESEINNOVATINGMANUFACTURERSWEREWHATISKNOWNINTHETRADEASALLIEDMANUFACTURERSORALLIEDVENDORSTHESEAREFIRMSTHATMAKEASPECIALTYOFMANUFACTURINGATTACHMENTSFORTRACTORSHOVELSANDSIMILARMACHINESSOME
16、TIMESTHEYARESIMPLYEQUIPMENTDEALERSWHORUNASMALLMANUFACTURINGOPERATIONONTHESIDETRACTORSHOVELMANUFACTURERSWILLOFTENCOOPERATEWITHSUCHFIRMSBECAUSETHEACCESSORIESTHEYBUILDENHANCETHEUTILITYOFTHEBASICTRACTORSHOVELBYTAILORINGITTOVARIOUSSPECIALIZEDUSERSONLYONEINNOVATIONSTUDIEDWASCOMPLETELYDEVELOPEDBYAUSERTHEAT
17、TACHMENTCOUPLERSYSTEM,WHICHWASDEVELOPEDBYAFARMERFORUSEONHISFARMBUT6USERSDIDSOMEINNOVATIONWORKRELATEDTOSOMEOFTHEOTHERSPECIALATTACHMENTSSTUDIEDSEETHEAPPENDIXFOREXAMPLE,BEFORESTEELSHODTIRESWEREDEVELOPEDBYAMANUFACTURERTHEYAREUSEDTOPROTECTTRACTORSHOVELTIRESFROMCUTS，SOMETRACTORSHOVELUSERSWEREPROTECTINGTHE
18、TIRESOFTHEIRMACHINESBYWRAPPINGTHEMWITHHEAVYSTEELCHAINSMANUFACTURERSASINNOVATORSENGINEERINGTHERMOPLASTICSENGINEERINGPLASTICSARETRIUMPHSOFORGANICCHEMISTRYANDMOSTWERECREATEDAFTERWORLDWARIITHETERMENGINEERINGPLASTICSIMPLYMEANSAPLASTICTHATCANBEUSEDINDEMANDINGENGINEERINGAPPLICATIONSEXAMPLESOFSUCHAPPLICADON
19、SAREPARTSPLACEDUNDERMECHANICALSTRESSORMECHANICALSHOCKEG，GEARSORMALLETHEADSORPARTSPLACEDINDEMANDINGTEMPERATURESAND/ORCHEMICALENVIRONMENTSEG，PARTSUSEDINAUTOMOBILEENGINESPRIORTOTHEADVENTOFENGINEERINGPLASTICS,SUCHPARTSCOULDONLYHAVEBEENMADEOFAMATERIALLIKEMETALORGLASSNOWTHEYCANOFTENBEMADEBETTERANDMORECHEA
20、PLYFROMPLASTICALLENGINEERINGPLASTICSAREPRODUCEDINLOWVOLUMEBUTWITHARELATIVELYHIGHSELLINGPRICEWHENJUDGEDAGAINSTSUCHBULKPLASTICSASPOLYETHYLENEIN1976ENGINEERINGPLASTICSCOUNTEDFORABOUT2BYBUTACCOUNTEDFORABOUT6OFTHETOTALVALUEVOLUMEOFALLPLASTICSPRODUCEDOFALLPLASTICSPRODUCEDSTHESAMPLETHESAMPLEOFENGINEERINGPL
21、ASTICSINNOVATIONSCONSISTSOFALLCOMMERCIALLYSUCCESSFULENGINEERINGTHERMOPLASTICMONOMERSINTRODUCEDTOTHEMARKETAFTER1955THATACHIEVEDSALESOFATLEAST10MILLIONLBSANNUALLYBY1975THISDEFINITIONOFCOMMERCIALSUCCESSWASSUGGESTEDBYPLASTICSMANUFACTURERINTERVIEWEESTHEFIVEENGINEERINGTHERMOPLASTICSINNOVATIONSTHATMETTHESE
22、SAMPLESELECTIONCRITERIAAREIDENTIFIEDINTABLE35FINDINGSTHESOURCESOFENGINEERINGTHERMOPLASTICSINNOVATIONASCANBESEENINTABLE36,“FOURANDONEHALF“OFTHEFIVEENGINEERING7PLASTICSINTHESAMPLEWEREDEVELOPEDBYPLASTICSMANUFACTURERSTHUS,THISVERYSMALLSAMPLESHOWSASTRONGMANUFACTURERASINNOVATORPATTERNTHEINNOVATIONCODEDAS5
23、0USERDEVELOPEDAND50MANUFACTURERDEVELOPEDWASPOLYCARBONATERESINLEXAN，WHICHWASDEVELOPEDBYGENERALELECTRICIN1960GEISBOTHAMAJORPRODUCERANDAMAJORUSEROFPOLYCARBONATEINTHEPERIODIMMEDIATELYFOLLOWINGCOMMERCIALIZATIONWHENPRODUCTIONCAPACITYWASLOWRELATIVETOTHATOFTODAY,GEPERSONNELESTIMATETHATASMUCHAS50OFGEPOLYCARB
24、ONATEPRODUCTIONWASCONSUMEDINTERNALLYCURRENTLY,GECONSUMESONLYASMALLPERCENTAGEOFANNUALPOLYCARBONATEPRODUCTIONSEETHEAPPENDIXFORFURTHERDETAILSHAPPILY,CASESSUCHASGE,WHEREASINGLEFIRMHOLDSMORETHANONEFUNCTIONALROLEWITHRESPECTTOANINNOVATION,AREVERYRAREINOURSAMPLESWHENDUALORMULTIPLEROLESAREHELDBYTHESAMEINNOVATINGFIRMORINDIVIDUAL,SEVERECODINGPROBLEMSEMERGEOFTEN,ONECANNOTDETERMINEWHICHROLETHEINNOVATORWAS“REALLY“MOTIVATEDBYDURINGTHEDEVELOPMENTWORK
