1、本科毕业论文外文翻译外文文献原文MAKINGPARTICIPATIONMATTERMARGARETWEIR,JANERONGERUDE,CHRISTOPHERKANSELLUNIVERSITYOFCALIFORNIA,BERKELEYFORMORETHANHALFACENTURY,CRITICSHAVEPOINTEDTOTHEBALEFULEFFECTSOFTRANSPORTATIONPOLICYONAMERICANMETROPOLITANAREASFOREXAMPLE,IN1960,WITHTHEINTERSTATEHIGHWAYPROGRAMOPERATINGATFULLBORE,FUTU
2、RESENATORDANIELPATRICKMOYNIHANSHARPLYCRITICIZEDTHEOUTSIZEDPROMISESOFTHEHIGHWAYBUILDERSINSTEAD,OFBRINGING“CITYANDCOUNTRYCLOSERTOGETHERMAKINGUS“ONECOUNTRYANDAUNITEDPEOPLE,”MOYNIHANWARNEDTHATTHEUNPLANNEDAPPROACHTOHIGHWAYBUILDINGWOULDCREATE“CHAOSINCONCRETE”ITSEFFECTSWOULDBEPARTICULARLYHARMFULFORCITIESWH
3、ERE“PLANSHAVEBEENTHROWNTOGETHERANDTHEBULLDOZERSSETTOWORK”MOYNIHAN1960MOYNIHANPREDICTEDTHAT,WITHOUTMETROPOLITANPLANNINGTOGUIDETRANSPORTATIONDECISIONS,HIGHWAYBUILDERSWOULDLET“SUBURBSEATENDLESSLYINTOTHECOUNTRYSIDE”ANDDESTROYCITIESWITHILLCONCEIVEDHIGHWAYPROJECTSTHREEDECADESLATER,ASASENATESUBCOMMITTEECHA
4、IR,MOYNIHANREENTEREDTHESAMEDEBATE,SPEARHEADINGTHEPASSAGEOFTHEINTERMODALSURFACETRANSPORTATIONEFFICIENCYACTISTEA,LEGISLATIONTHATAIMEDTOREVERSETHEHARMFULIMPACTOFTRANSPORTATIONONCITIESHAILEDASAREVOLUTIONINTRANSPORTATIONPOLICYMAKING,THELAWPROVIDEDACOMBINATIONOFINSTITUTIONALREFORMANDNEWREQUIREMENTSFORPART
5、ICIPATION,WHICH,TOGETHER,ITWASHOPED,WOULDMAKETRANSPORTATIONPOLICYRESPONSIVETOTHENEEDSOFCITIESISTEASCENTRALINSTITUTIONALREFORMCARVEDOUTASPACEFORREGIONALDECISIONMAKINGBYENHANCINGTHEPOWEROFMETROPOLITANPLANNINGORGANIZATIONSMPOS,REGIONALENTITIESTHATHADEXISTEDSINCETHE1960SBUTWHICHEXERCISEDLITTLEAUTHORITYB
6、YGRANTINGMPOSNEWPOWEROVERSPENDING,REFORMERSHOPEDTOSHIFTSUBSTANTIALDECISIONMAKINGAUTHORITYAWAYFROMSTATEHIGHWAYDEPARTMENTS,WHEREURBANTRANSPORTATIONNEEDSTYPICALLYRECEIVEDSHORTSHRIFTGAGEANDMCDOWELL1995MCDOWELL1999ISTEAALSOINITIATEDPARTICIPATORYINNOVATIONS,REQUIRING“EARLYANDCONTINUOUS”PUBLICPARTICIPATION
7、INMPODELIBERATIONSADDITIONALPROVISIONSSTIPULATEDTHATMPOSANDSTATETRANSPORTATIONAGENCIESMAKESPECIALOUTREACHEFFORTSTOTRADITIONALLYUNDERSERVEDPOPULATIONSSANCHEZ,RICH,ANDMA2003BYMANDATINGPUBLICPARTICIPATIONINTHEPLANNINGPROCESS,THELEGISLATIONAIMEDTOELEVATETHECONCERNSOFTRANSPORTATIONCONSUMERSANDREININTHEPO
8、WERFULINTERESTSTHATPROFITEDFROMHIGHWAYCONSTRUCTIONREFORMERSHOPEDTHATTHEREVAMPEDINSTITUTIONALSETTINGFORDECISIONMAKINGANDTHEADDITIONOFNEWVOICESWOULDALTERTHEEXISTINGPOLICYBIASTHATFAVOREDEXPANSIVEDEVELOPMENTATTHEEXPENSEOFCITIESANDWOULDPRODPOLICYMAKERSTOCONSIDERTHEBROADERSOCIALANDECONOMICIMPACTSOFTRANSPO
9、RTATIONINSOMEWAYS,THENEWLAWWASASTRIKINGSUCCESSINMETROPOLITANAREASACROSSTHECOUNTRY,THEPROVISIONSFOROPENINGPARTICIPATIONPROVOKEDNEWDEBATESINTHEONCELARGELYCLOSEDARENAOFTRANSPORTATIONPOLICYMAKINGEMERGENTPOLICYNETWORKSBROUGHTTOGETHERBICYCLEADVOCATES,ENVIRONMENTALISTS,ADVOCATESFORIMPROVINGACCESSFORTHEELDE
10、RLYANDLOWINCOMEPEOPLE,ANDSUPPORTERSOFIMPROVEDPUBLICTRANSITREGIONALCONVENINGSANDPLANNINGPROCESSESELICITEDFRESHVISIONSOFMETROPOLITANAREASANDSOLICITEDINPUTTHATWENTWELLBEYONDTHEUSUALNARROWCOALITIONOFHIGHWAYBUILDERS,REALESTATEINTERESTS,ANDDEVELOPERSDESPITETHEHOPESTHATTHEINITIALLEGISLATIONROUSEDANDTHEPASS
11、AGEOFTWOSUBSEQUENTREAUTHORIZATIONSIN1998AND2005REINFORCINGANDEXTENDINGTHENOVELTHRUSTOFTHE1991LAW,MOSTASSESSMENTSCONCURINLABELINGTHERESULTSOFTRANSPORTATIONREFORMDISAPPOINTINGINAWIDERANGINGEVALUATIONOFTHELAWSIMPACT,KATZ,PUENTESANDBERNSTEIN,FOREXAMPLE,CHARGEDTHATIMPLEMENTATIONOFFEDERALTRANSPORTATIONSTA
12、TUTESHADBEEN“SERIOUSLYFLAWEDANDINBASICWAYSUNRESPONSIVETOMETROPOLITANNEEDS”KATZ,PUENTES,ANDBERNSTEIN2005ONEOFCENTRALPROBLEMSIN,THEIRVIEW,ISTHATISTHATEVENTHOUGH“ISTEAANDTEA21WEREDESIGNEDTOMOVETRANSPORTATIONDECISIONMAKINGOUTOFTHEBACKROOMSANDBOARDROOMSOFTHEHIGHWAYESTABLISHMENT,MANYSTATEDOTSSTILLWIELDCON
13、SIDERABLEFORMALANDINFORMALPOWER,RETAININGAUTHORITYOVERSUBSTANTIALSTATETRANSPORTATIONFUNDS”PUENTESANDBAILEY2005HOWCANTHEDISAPPOINTINGASSESSMENTSOFTHELEGISLATIONBERECONCILEDWITHTHERANGEOFNEWACTIVITYTHATITINSPIREDTHISPAPEREXAMINESTHATQUESTIONBYCOMPARINGTHEFATEOFTRANSPORTATIONREFORMINTHELOSANGELESANDCHI
14、CAGOREGIONSSINCETHEPASSAGEOFISTEAIN1991INBOTHREGIONS,WESHOW,THETRANSPORTATIONFIELDSAWTHEEMERGENCEOFNEWACTORSANDREGIONALNETWORKSDEDICATEDTOCHANGINGTHEPROCESSESANDOUTCOMESOFPOLICYMAKINGINTRANSPORTATIONHOWEVER,INLOSANGELES,THENETWORKTHATEMERGEDAROUNDREGIONALTRANSPORTATIONREFORMBEGANTOPETEROUTAFTERADECA
15、DEOFACTIVISMINCHICAGO,BYCONTRAST,THEREGIONALREFORMNETWORKGREWSTRONGEROVERTIMETHEDIVERGENCEINREFORMTRAJECTORIES,WEARGUE,ISDUETOTHEGREATERCENTRALIZATIONOFTHECHICAGOREFORMNETWORKANDTHEPARTICIPATIONOFPOWERFULACTORSINITTHESEFEATURESOFCHICAGOSNETWORKLAIDTHEGROUNDWORKFORAVIRTUOUSCYCLEBETWEENEXPANDEDPARTICI
16、PATIONANDINSTITUTIONALREFORMOFTHEMPO,WHICHWASESSENTIALFORSTRENGTHENINGREGIONALGOVERNANCECAPACITIESINLOSANGELES,THEABSENCEOFPOWERFULACTORSANDTHEDECENTRALIZEDNATUREOFTHENETWORKGENERATEDANEWREGIONALCONVERSATIONABOUTTRANSPORTATIONBUTFAILEDTOPROMOTEREFORMOFTHEMPOLACKINGAVIRTUOUSCYCLEBETWEENPARTICIPATIONA
17、NDINSTITUTIONALDEVELOPMENT,THEIMPETUSFORPARTICIPATINGINREGIONALVENUESWITHEREDANDLOSANGELESSREFORMNETWORKBEGANTOATROPHYTHISARTICLEDEVELOPSTHISARGUMENTINFOURPARTSTHEFIRSTSECTIONEXAMINESTHELITERATUREONPOLICYFEEDBACKSANDPARTICIPATION,SHOWINGHOWTHEMULTITIEREDCONTEXTOFDECISIONMAKINGCREATESCHALLENGESFORLAU
18、NCHINGAVIRTUOUSCYCLEOFREFORMBETWEENPARTICIPATIONOFNEWCONSTITUENCIESANDINSTITUTIONALREFORMTHENEXTTWOSECTIONSDOCUMENTTHEINITIALSUCCESSESINOPENINGPARTICIPATIONINBOTHREGIONSASNEWGROUPSENTEREDTHETRANSPORTATIONARENAANDBEGANTOCOALESCEINTOREFORMNETWORKSTHEFINALSECTIONSHOWSHOWTHEDIFFERENCESINTHESTRUCTUREOFTH
19、EREGIONALNETWORKSANDTHEIRABILITYTOPROMOTEINSTITUTIONALCHANGECAUSEDTHETRAJECTORYOFREFORMTODIVERGEINTHETWOREGIONSSCHOLARSFROMDIVERSETHEORETICALTRADITIONSHAVESOUGHTTOASSESSTHEWAYSTHATPOLICYDESIGNINFLUENCESPARTICIPATIONANDPOLICYOUTCOMESONESTRANDOFINSTITUTIONALISTTHEORYARGUESTHATNEWPOLICIESCANCREATEVIRTU
20、OUSCYCLESINWHICHNEWPOLICIESGIVERISETOCONSTITUENCIESWHOSESUPPORTSUSTAINSTHEPOLICYINTHEFUTUREANDPREVENTSOPPONENTSFROMROLLINGITBACKOTHERAPPROACHESEXAMINEHOWPOLICYCANALTERTHETERMSONWHICHDIFFERENTGROUPSENGAGEWITHONEANOTHERAROUNDPOLICYGOALSARGUMENTSABOUTCOLLABORATIONANDTHENETWORKEDPOLICY,FOREXAMPLE,HIGHLI
21、GHTPOSSIBILITIESFORMUTUALLYBENEFICIALENGAGEMENTINWHICHPOLICYBRINGSACTORSTOGETHERTOCOLLABORATEONPROBLEMSOLVINGACLOSERLOOKATTHEASSUMPTIONSINTHESELITERATURESREVEALSTHATNEITHERPAYSADEQUATEATTENTIONTOTHEWAYAMULTITIEREDPOLITICALCONTEXTINFLUENCESTHEDYNAMICSOFPARTICIPATION,INSTITUTIONALCHANGE,ANDPOLICYDEVEL
22、OPMENTTHEIDEATHATPOLICYCANCHANGEPOLITICSHASALONGPEDIGREEINTHESTUDYOFAMERICANPOLITICS,FROMEESCHATTSCHNEIDERSANALYSISOFTHEIMPACTOFPOLICYREFORMONTAXPOLITICSTOTHEODORELOWISDEPICTIONOFTHREEDISCRETEPOLICYARENASTHATCREATEDISTINCTSTYLESOFPOLITICSSCHATTSCHNEIDER1983,LOWI1963RECENTLY,SCHOLARSHAVEPOSEDTHEQUEST
23、IONMOREBROADLYASONEOF“POLICYFEEDBACKS”PIERSON1993,CAMPBELL2005TYPICALLYDRAWINGONANALYSESOFSOCIALWELFAREPOLICIES,THISWORKSHOWSHOWSPECIFICFEATURESOFPOLICYDESIGNSHAPECONSTITUENCIES,REFRAMEFUTUREPERCEPTIONSABOUTTHEPURPOSEORSCOPEOFTHEPOLICY,ANDHELPRECASTINTERESTSINWAYSTHATBUILDOROBSTRUCTSUPPORTIVECOALITI
24、ONSINTHISPERSPECTIVE,POLICYNOTONLYCREATESNEWCONSTITUENCIES,ITALSOCANSETTHETERMSONWHICHGROUPSINTERACT,GIVINGSOMEGROUPSALEGUP,MAKINGSOMEKINDSOFOUTCOMESMOREPOSSIBLEANDOTHERSLESSLIKELYMOREOVER,THEVIRTUOUSLINKAGEBETWEENAPOLICYANDITSBENEFICIARIESALTERSPOLITICSINENDURINGWAYSPOLICIESCANSTRENGTHENGROUPS,WHIC
25、HINTURNUSETHEIRPOWERTODEFENDANDSTRENGTHENTHEPOLICYATTHEIRTIGHTEST,THESELINKAGESCREATE“LOCKIN”INWHICHEVENWIDESPREADOPPOSITIONMAYNOTBEABLETODISLODGEAPOLICYPIERSON1994THISINTERTWINEDIMPACTOFPOLICYONCONSTITUENCYFORMATION,IDEASABOUTPOLICY,ANDCOALITIONFORMATIONCREATEADISTINCTIVEPOLITICALLANDSCAPEANDSHAPET
26、HETERMSINWHICHFUTUREPUBLICPROBLEMSAREPERCEIVEDANDADDRESSEDALTHOUGHMUCHOFTHISLITERATUREEXAMINESAMERICANSOCIALPOLICY,ITRARELYCONSIDERSHOWTHEOPERATIONOFTHEFEDERALSYSTEMAFFECTSTHEIMPACTOFPOLICYONPOLITICSONEIMPORTANTEXCEPTIONISMARASIDNEYSSTUDYOFCOMMUNITYREINVESTMENTANDFAIRHOUSINGPOLICIESSIDNEY2003SIDNEYS
27、HOWSTHATCROSSSCALEPOLICIESREQUIREANALYZINGHOWDISTINCTIVELOCALCONDITIONSMEDIATETHEINFLUENCEOFNATIONALPOLICYONPOLITICSSHEALSOHIGHLIGHTSTHEROLEOFNONPROFITORGANIZATIONSASCRITICALINTERMEDIARIESINDETERMININGTHELOCALIMPACTOFPOLICYINANERAOFDEVOLUTION,SHENOTES,MUCHOFLOCALIMPLEMENTATIONISCARRIEDOUTBYADVOCACYO
28、RGANIZATIONS,NOTLOCALGOVERNMENTSTHEREFORE,TOASSESSTHEIMPACTOFPOLICYINTHISCONTEXT,WEMUSTASSESSDISTINCTIVELOCALCONDITIONSANDEVALUATETHESTRATEGICCAPACITYANDCREATIVITYOFTHELOCALORGANIZEDGROUPSINWHOSEHANDSIMPLEMENTATIONRESTSMOLLENKOPF1983SELLERS2002ASECONDLITERATUREEXAMININGREGIONALCOLLABORATIONANDNETWOR
29、KEDGOVERNANCEENCOUNTERSSIMILARPROBLEMSINEXPLAININGTHETRAJECTORYOFREFORMINTHEFIELDOFTRANSPORTATIONTHISWORKARGUESTHATTHEACTIVEENGAGEMENTOFSOCIETYCANBEANEFFECTIVEMEANSFORACHIEVINGPUBLICGOALSBYLINKINGFUNCTIONALLYDISTINCTGROUPSINNEWHORIZONTALNETWORKSANSELL2000WITHINTHISCONTEXT,ITBECOMESMOREPOSSIBLEFORDIV
30、ERGINGINTERESTSTOIDENTIFYPOINTSOFCOMMONALITYANDTOCRAFTPOLICYAPPROACHESOFMUTUALBENEFITTHEORIESABOUTCOLLABORATIONANDNETWORKEDGOVERNANCEHIGHLIGHTTHENEEDFORBROKERS,SUCHASNONGOVERNMENTALORGANIZEDINTERMEDIARIES,TOCONNECTDIVERSESTAKEHOLDERSTOONEOTHERANDTOTHESTATEMCQUARRIE,GUTHRIE,ANDHESS2005THEREFORMERSWHO
31、INITIATEDISTEAHOPEDTHATTHECHANGESTHEYMADEINFEDERALPOLICYWOULDHELPCREATEAVERYDIFFERENTKINDOFTRANSPORTATIONPOLITICSBYSTRENGTHENINGREGIONALCAPACITYANDREQUIRINGBROADERPARTICIPATIONINONCESENSETHEYSUCCEEDEDNEWGROUPSWITHPREVIOUSLYUNREPRESENTEDPERSPECTIVESEMERGEDTOPARTICIPATEINTRANSPORTATIONDECISIONMAKINGTH
32、ESEGROUPSJOINEDWITHEXISTINGORGANIZATIONSTOCREATENEWNETWORKSDESIGNEDTOSHAREINFORMATIONANDPROMOTECOLLABORATIONEXERCISINGPOWEROVERDECISIONMAKING,HOWEVER,PROVEDFARMOREELUSIVEALTHOUGHTHEASPIRATIONSOFFEDERALREFORMWEREFARREACHING,THELAWSTHEMSELVESWERETOOWEAKTOPROVIDELOCALACTORSWITHTHETOOLSTOOVERRIDEDECISIO
33、NSINCOMPETINGARENASSTATEANDLOCALDECISIONMAKERSPROVEDDIFFICULTTODISLODGEASTRADITIONALREALESTATE,HOMEBUILDINGANDCONSTRUCTIONINTERESTSRESISTEDENCROACHMENTFROMTHENEWREGIONALARENAINTHISCONTEXT,HORIZONTALCOLLABORATIONBYITSELFCANDOLITTLEMORETHANPROMOTENEWIDEASANDHOPEFORTHEBESTHORIZONTALCOLLABORATIONINREGIO
34、NSMAYHELPBUILDCONSENSUSANDALLIANCESTHATCANWORKINMOREPOWERFULSTATEANDFEDERALVENUESTOPROMOTEREGIONALCAPACITY,ASINCHICAGOWHETHERSUCHEFFORTSARESUCCESSFULDEPENDSNOTONLYONTHEHORIZONTALCONSENSUSBUILDINGPROCESSBUT,MORECRITICALLY,ONTHEPOWERRELATIONSHIPSALLIANCES,COALITIONS,ENEMIESTHATPREVAILINTHESEALTERNATIV
35、EVENUES参与事项作者MARGARETWEIR,JANERONGERUDE,CHRISTOPHERKANSELL超过半个世纪,批评者指出,美国大都市区的交通政策的恶意影响。例如,在1960年,州际高速公路的全控方案,未来的参议员丹尼尔帕特里克莫尼汉尖锐批评的高速公路建设者的丰厚的承诺。相反,引进来“我们的城市和国家紧密联系起来一个国家,一个团结的人,”莫伊尼汉警告说,计划外的公路建设将建立在混凝土中的乱。所在城市,其影响将特别有害“计划已放在一起,推土机设置工作”(1960年莫伊尼汉)。莫伊尼汉预测,没有大都市的规划,引导运输决策,公路建设者将让“郊区无休止的扩大到农村”,并摧毁不周的公路
36、项目的城市。三十年后,作为一个参议院小组委员会主席,莫伊尼汉重新输入相同的辩论,率先通过“多式联运地面运输效率法”(ISTEA)的立法,旨在扭转运输对城市造成的有害影响。这个被誉为在交通决策的革命,法律规定结合机构改革和参与,运输政策,顺应城市的需要,使这些联系在一起,对运输发展才有希望。ISTEA的中央机构改革,划分出一个区域提高大都市区规划组织(MPOS),自1960年以来就已存在,但小管理局行使的区域实体的权力,决策的空间。通过授予的业务总超过支出的新的动力,改革者希望把大量决策权脱离州公路部门,城市交通需求通常得到重视不够(伽戈和麦克道尔1995年,麦克道尔1999年)。ISTEA也开
37、始参与创新,需要“早期和持续的”公众参与MPO的审议。附加条款规定,业务总计划和国家运输机构作出特别的外展努力,通过公众参与,要求在规划过程中,立法的目的是提升运输消费者的关注,并发挥强大的传统缺医少药的人群(桑切斯,丰富,马2003年)公路建设中获利的利益。改革者希望,新的决策的机构设置和增加新的声音将改变现有的政策倾向,主张在牺牲城市广阔的发展,并会督促决策者考虑更广泛的社会和经济影响的交通。新的法律在某些方面,是一个惊人的成功。开放参与的规定,在全国各地的大都市地区,在舞台上曾经在很大程度上封闭的交通决策引起了新的辩论。紧急的政策网络汇集了自主的倡导者,环保主义者,主张改善老年人和低收入
38、人群的访问,并改善公共交通的支持者。区域召开和规划过程引起的大都市区和征求输入,远远超越了一般的狭窄的公路建设者,房地产利益,开发商联盟的新鲜视野。尽管最初的立法,激起的希望,通过两个随后在1998年和2005年加强和扩大1991年的法律法规推力这项爱国运动,大多数评估同意在标签运输改革令人失望的结果。卡茨,普恩特斯和伯恩斯坦认为在一个广泛的评估法的影响,收取联邦交通法规的执行情况已经“严重缺陷和基本方式大都市的需求反应迟钝”(卡茨,普恩特斯,和伯恩斯坦2005年)。一个核心问题,他们认为,那就是即使“ISTEA和TEA21的目的是将运输决策后面的客房和高速公路的建立板房,许多国家决策者仍挥舞
39、相当正式和非正式的权力,保留庞大的国家运输基金管理局”(2005年普恩特斯和贝利)。如何能令人失望的立法评估与新的活动范围,它的启发是什么通过比较在洛杉矶和芝加哥地区的运输改革的命运,因为在1991年通过的ISTEA本文探讨这个问题。在这两个地区,我们表明,交通运输领域看到出现新的参与者和区域网络,致力于不断变化的运输决策的过程和成果。然而,在洛杉矶,围绕区域交通改革中出现的网络开始对彼得后十年的激进主义。在芝加哥,相比之下,区域改革网络增长随着时间的推移。改革的轨迹上的分歧,我们认为是由于芝加哥改革网络集中和强大的群众参与。芝加哥网络的这些特点为扩大参与和机构改革的MPO的,这是加强区域治理
40、能力的重要之间的良性循环奠定了基础。在洛杉矶,没有强大的群众和网络的分散性产生了一个新的区域对话,有关运输,但未能推动改革的MPO的。缺乏参与区域场地枯萎和洛杉矶的改革网络之间的参与和体制发展,带动的良性循环开始萎缩。学者们从不同的理论传统的旨在评估政策设计的影响的方式,参与和政策的结果。一个链制度主义理论认为,新政策可以创建新的政策带来的支持,在未来的政策支撑,并防止对手回滚动选区的良性循环。其它的方法,研究政策如何可以改变的条件,而不同群体的政策目标之一左右从事。关于合作和网络政策的争论,例如,强调互利参与其中的政策带来的演员一起合作解决问题的可能性。仔细观察,在这些文献中的假设,既不支付
41、足够的重视的一个多层次的政治背景影响的参与力度,制度变迁和政策制定。政策可以改变政治的理念在长期研究美国政治血统,从EE沙特施奈德的政策改革的税收政治的影响分析西奥多洛依的三个独立的政策领域,创建鲜明的政治风格的描述(沙特施奈德1983,LOWI1963年)。最近,学者们提出的问题更广泛地作为一个“政策反馈”(皮尔森1993年,坎贝尔2005)。通常情况下的社会福利政策分析,这项工作政策的外形设计组别,有关政策的目的或范围的重新塑造未来的看法,帮助重铸方式建立或妨碍支持联盟的利益的特定功能。从这个角度来看,政策不仅创造了新的支持者,它也可以设定的条件,而群体互动,给某些群体的一条腿,使一些成果
42、,更多的可能和别人不太可能。此外,政策和其受益人之间的良性联动,在持久的方式改变政治。政策可以加强群体,这反过来又利用手中的权力,捍卫和加强政策。在其严格的,这些联系建立“锁定”甚至普遍反对可能无法驱逐政策(1994年皮尔森)。这选区形成政策相互交织的影响,有关政策的思路,和联盟的形成创造了鲜明的政治景观和塑造,在未来的公共问题是认识和处理的条款虽然这种文学研究美国社会政策,它很少认为联邦系统的运作如何影响政策的政治影响。一个重要的例外是马拉悉尼的社区再投资和公平的房屋政策(2003年悉尼)的研究。悉尼表明,跨尺度的政策需要分析鲜明的地方条件如何调解国家政策对政治的影响,她也强调非营利组织的关
43、键中介的作用,在确定的政策在当地的影响。在一个权力下放的时代,她指出,许多地方实施进行宣传组织,而不是地方政府。因此,要在这方面的影响评估政策,我们必须评估鲜明的地方条件和评估当地团体组织在其手中的落实依赖(莫伦科夫1983舍尔乐2002)的战略能力和创造力。第二个文学研究的区域合作和网络治理遇到类似的问题,在解释在交通运输领域的改革轨迹。这项工作认为,社会的积极参与,可以实现公共目标联系起来,在新的横向网络(安塞尔2000年)的功能不同的群体的有效手段。在这种情况下,它变得更加可能为不同的利益,找出共性点和工艺互利的政策方针。协作和网络治理理论突出,如非政府组织的中介经纪人,需要连接到另外一
44、个国家的不同利益相关者(麦夸里,格思里,赫斯,2005)。发起ISTEA改革者们希望,他们在联邦政策的变化将有助于创造一个非常不同的运输政治的一种通过加强区域能力,需要更广泛地参与。在一次的感觉,他们成功地与以前的新群体代表的观点出现了参与运输决策。这些团体加入与现有的组织,创建新的网络,信息共享,促进合作。然而,事实证明对决策权,更难以捉摸。虽然联邦改革的愿望是深远的,法律本身太弱地方行动者提供的工具,以在竞争舞台上覆盖决定。国家和地方的决策者证明很难再被动摇,抵制新的区域舞台上,作为传统的房地产,住宅建设和建设利益侵占。在此背景下,横向协作本身可以做多一点,并且推广新思路,并希望最好。可能有助于建立共识和联盟,可以工作在更强大的州和联邦的场地,以促进区域的能力,在芝加哥地区的横向协作。无论这种努力是成功的依赖不仅对水平建立共识的过程,但更关键的是,在权力关系联盟,同盟,敌人这些替代场地为准。