1、1本科毕业论文外文翻译外文文献译文标题集群、功能区域和集群政策资料来源科学创新研究中心作者查理卡尔森摘要由于受到学术界和政界对研究经济集群和集群这一课题的兴趣的鼓动，本文对此课题做出了一个概述。功能性区域具有让例如集群这样的经济活动的聚集地从中获利的特性。功能区的区域内交易和运输的成本低，并具有利用当地劳动力市场的通道。空间上的经济集聚长期以来受到忽视，直到20世纪90年代，克鲁格曼才将这一课题搬上研究的舞台。在过去的十年间，学术界关于集聚和集聚现象的兴趣在受到对这一课题的新的引入后，迅速升温。由此，这一课题也被不同学术水平的研究者所思索。关于集群的重要性问题，同样受到了包括国家、地区、地方三
2、个层面的关注，并且集群政策也已成为政策思考的一个主要部分。然而，这些政策总是基于一种不严密的分析，这种分析往往又是没有严格的规范声明的。1引言本文对经济集群作出全面概述，并希望引起研究集群的产生和集群管理的有关学者和创业者的兴趣。集群已经受到有关学者，政策制定者以及生意人的关注。在2006年10月的谷歌搜索总数中，关于集群概念的搜索获得了1550000的点击率。在谷歌学术搜索获得1550000的点击率的同时，关于经济和社会科学的搜索获得了大约206000的点击率。这些结果清楚地表明了对集群话题的巨大而普遍的关注度。在集群研究者中同样迅速升温的，是对于经济学和相关学科的兴趣。在使用2006年10
3、月的ECONLIT时，我们发现关于集群的点击率在2005年有146次之多，而在1969年，这一数字仅仅是3次。目前关于集群和相关学科的研究，已经成为许多工商管理、经济学、经济地理学、城市和区域规划专业的大学本科生及研究生学习研究的组成部分。在政策层面，许多发达国家的政府在中央、区域以及当地各级开展集群研究，并且制定政策，旨在支持集群的实现和刺激新的集群的出现。这些政策的成功各不相同，但是集群政策似乎已经成为了产业和区域政策制定的组成部分。国际组织，例如OECD，已主导了专门研究以支持集群政策的发展（MALMBERGLAGENDIJKLUNDVALL,2002）ASEARCHONTHECONCE
4、PTCLUSTERPOLICYUSINGGOOGLEINOCTOBER2006GAVEABOUT38,500HITSCERTAINLY,THEREISASTRONGNEEDFORATHOROUGHDISCUSSIONOFCLUSTERPOLICIESANDNOTLEASTTHERATIONALEFORCLUSTERPOLICIESINMANYCOUNTRIESATTHENATIONAL,ASWELLASATTHEREGIONALANDLOCALLEVELCLUSTERDEVELOPMENTHASBECOMETHESOLUTIONTOECONOMICDEVELOPMENTHOWEVER,INMA
5、NYCASES,CLUSTERDEVELOPMENTSEEMSTOBEBASEDONNOORVERYLIMITEDANALYSISCLUSTERSAREFOUNDANDIDENTIFIEDWITHOUTANYCLEARCRITERIAWHENCRITERIAAREUSED,THEYAREOFTENVERYSIMPLE,SUCHASLOCATIONQUOTIENTSSTILLWORSE,THEREISOFTENVERYLITTLEANALYSISOFWHATFACTORSTHATGAVERISETOTHEEMERGENCEOFCLUSTERS,THEFACTORSKEEPINGTHEMTOGET
6、HER,THELONGTERMPROSPECTSOFTHECLUSTERS,THEFUNDAMENTALREASONSMOTIVATINGPOLITICALINTERVENTION,THEPROBLEMSOFAPPLYINGCLUSTERPOLICIESEXISTINGCLUSTERSCANOFTENBEEFFICIENTLYSUPPORTEDBYPOLICIESSTIMULATINGEMERGENCEOFNEWCLUSTERSISSUBSTANTIALLYMORECOMPLICATEDHAVINGWITNESSEDTHESUCCESSOFALIMITEDNUMBEROFSUCCESSFULH
7、IGHTECHCLUSTERSMANYREGIONSWANTTOINITIATEANDNURTURETHEIROWNHIGHTECHCLUSTERSTHISISOFTENDONEWITHLITTLEANDMOSTLYSUPERFICIALANALYSISOFTENTHEINITIATIVESTOCREATENEWCLUSTERSAREBASEDUPONRATHERSIMPLEIMITATIONSTRATEGIES,WHICHSEVERELYUNDERESTIMATETHEDIFFICULTIESOFLAUNCHINGNEWCLUSTERSTHEDIFFICULTIESAREREALSINCER
8、ESEARCHHASHADRATHERLITTLEHELPTOOFFERCONCERNINGTHENECESSARYANDSUFFICIENTCONDITIONSFORSUCCESSFULLAUNCHINGOFNEWCLUSTERSCLUSTERSCONTRIBUTEPOSITIVELYTOREALINCOMELEVELSINREGIONSTHISHASIMPORTANTIMPLICATIONSFORREGIONALDEVELOPMENTPOLICESHOWEVER,ITISNOTOBVIOUSWHATTHEIMPLICATIONSAREANDHOWCLUSTERPOLICIESSHOULDB
9、EDESIGNED（KARLSSONSTOUGH,2002）WHATTYPEOFREGIONALCLUSTERPOLICYTOAPPLYDEPENDSONTYPEOFCLUSTER（S）,ACTUALDEGREEOFCLUSTERFORMATIONINTHEREGION,ANDINFORMATIONANDKNOWLEDGEABOUTEXISTINGCLUSTERSANDCLUSTERPOLICIESPOSSESSEDBYRELEVANTPOLITICALAUTHORITIESINTHEIDEALCASE,POLICYMEASURESSHOULDBEDIRECTEDTOWARDSTHECAUSE
10、SOFTHEPROBLEMTOBESOLVEDITISIMPORTANTTOREALISETHATEXTERNALITIES,WHICHSTIMULATECLUSTERFORMATIONIS11ASIGNOFWHATISCALLEDAMARKETFAILURETHISHOLDSIRRESPECTIVELYOFTHEEXTERNALITIESAREPECUNIARYORTECHNOLOGICALINTRADITIONALECONOMICWELFARETHEORY,THEEXISTENCEOFMARKETFAILURESHASGENERALLYBEENTAKENASAMOTIVATIONFORPO
11、LITICALINTERFERENCEHOWEVER,THISVIEWHASBECOMEMORENUANCEDINRECENTDECADESPOLITICALINTERFERENCEISASSOCIATEDWITHITSOWNCOSTSANDTHESECOSTSMUSTBEWEIGHTEDAGAINSTTHEBENEFITSFROMREMOVEDORREDUCEDMARKETFAILURESINTHECASEOFTECHNOLOGICALEXTERNALITIES,MARKETFAILUREISOBVIOUSTHEINDIVIDUALFIRMHASNOINCENTIVESINITSCALCUL
12、ATIONSTOCONSIDERTHEPOSITIVE（NEGATIVE）EFFECTSFOROTHERFIRMSOFITSOWNACTIVITIESTHUS,THEINDIVIDUALFIRMWILLNOTCONSIDERTHEVALUEOFITSOWNACTIVITIESFORTHECLUSTERANDFORTHEOVERALLNATIONALECONOMYTHISCONDITIONIMPLIESTHAT,FOREXAMPLE,PRIVATECOMPANIESINAMARKETECONOMYREGULARLYUNDERINVESTINRD,SINCEITDOESNOTCONSIDERTHE
13、VALUEFOROTHERFIRMSOFITSKNOWLEDGECREATIONPECUNIARYEXTERNALITIESONTHEOTHERHANDAREMARKETFAILURESCONNECTEDWITHSCALEECONOMIESORIMPERFECTCOMPETITIONTHEUTILIZATIONOFSCALEECONOMIES,THESUPPLYOFPRODUCTS,ANDTHEDEGREEOFCOMPETITIONAREALLLIMITEDBYTHESIZEOFTHEMARKETPOTENTIALIFMORECUSTOMERSENTERTHEMARKETORIFSUPPLIE
14、RSBETTERCANACCESSDISTANTMARKETSTHISLIMITATIONISREDUCEDANDASOCIOECONOMICBENEFITARISESTHROUGHLOWERUNITCOSTS,AWIDERSUPPLYOFPRODUCTSAND/ORINCREASEDCOMPETITIONTHUS,ITISNOTTHEPECUNIARYEXTERNALITIESASSUCH,WHICHREPRESENTMARKETFAILUREITISJUSTASYMPTOMOFAMARKETFAILURE,WHICHCOMESFROMTHEPRODUCTIONCONDITIONS（SCAL
15、EECONOMIES）ORTHEMARKETFORM（IMPERFECTCOMPETITION）CERTAINMARKETFAILURESDUETOEXTERNALITIESCANBEAVOIDEDIFTHEEFFECTSCANBEINTERNALISED,EGIFTHEFIRMSINACLUSTERDECIDETOCOORDINATETHEIRACTIVITIESTHROUGHACOMMONOWNERSHIPORTHROUGHCONTRACTUALARRANGEMENTSCLUSTERFIRMSCANALSOORGANISETHEMSELVESANDWORKJOINTLYTOGETMOREF
16、IRMSAND/ORHOUSEHOLDTOLOCATEINTHEREGIONTOINCREASETHEMARKETPOTENTIALOFTHEREGION,IFTHESIZEOFTHEMARKETPOTENTIALISTOOSMALLFORPOSITIVEPECUNIARYEXTERNALITIESTOBEREALISEDTHEREARE,INFACT,PLENTYOFEXAMPLESOFTHEROLETHATPRIVATESECTORLEADERSHIPCANPLAYFORCLUSTERINITIATIONANDCLUSTERDEVELOPMENT（STIMSON,STOUGHROBERTS
17、,2002）HOWEVER,IFTHENUMBEROFECONOMICACTORSISLARGEITMIGHTBEIMPOSSIBLETOACHIEVEINTERNALISATIONORTO12ORGANISEAPRIVATESECTORLEADERSHIPTHEREAREALSOLIMITATIONSTOWHATCLUSTERFIRMSCANACHIEVEMANYIMPORTANTPOLICYISSUES,SUCHASTHEBUILDINGUPOFMATERIALANDNONMATERIALINFRASTRUCTURES,INMOSTCOUNTRIESRESIDEWITHINTHEPUBLI
18、CSECTOROBVIOUSLY,THEREARETWOCASESWHENPUBLICSECTORCLUSTERPOLICIESMIGHTBECONSIDEREDUNDERASSUMPTIONSOFPERFECTINFORMATIONTHEFIRSTCASECONCERNSPRIVATESECTORCOORDINATIONFAILURES,WHEREPRIVATESECTORCOORDINATIONMIGHTBESUBSTITUTEDWITHPUBLICSECTORCOORDINATIONTHESECONDCASECONCERNSSUBOPTIMALMARKETPOTENTIALSINREGI
19、ONSWITHCLUSTERS,WHEREPUBLICSECTORINFRASTRUCTUREINVESTMENTSCANCONTRIBUTETOINCREASEDMARKETPOTENTIALSBYMEANSOFTHEEXTENSIONORMERGEROFFUNCTIONALREGIONSAND/ORBETTERACCESSTOEXTERNALMARKETSCOORDINATIONFAILURESAND/ORUNDEROPTIMALMARKETPOTENTIALSCANRESULTINCLUSTERSOPERATINGUNDERSUBOPTIMALSCALEORTHATPOTENTIALPR
20、OFITABLECLUSTERSARENOTESTABLISHEDASACLUSTERCONSISTOFTHOSEFIRMS,WHICHBESTAREABLETOTAKEADVANTAGEOFAREGIONSMARKETPOTENTIALANDITSDURABLERESOURCES,REGIONALCLUSTERPOLICIESSHOULDPRIMARILYFOCUSONSUPPORTINGANDDEVELOPINGEXISTINGCLUSTERSDUETOTHEEXISTENCEOFPOSITIVEEXTERNALITIES,THEEXISTINGCLUSTERSINAREGIONWILLN
21、ORMALLYNOTACHIEVEANOPTIMALSCALESPONTANEOUSLYTOTHEEXTENTTHATEXISTINGCLUSTERSARENOTCAPABLEOFDRIVINGAREGIONSDEVELOPMENTITISNATURALTORAISEQUESTIONSABOUTNEWCLUSTERSANDTHUSTHEPOSSIBILITIESFORSTRUCTURALCHANGEINAREGIONTHROUGHCLUSTERSUBSTITUTION（VENABLES,2001）EVENIFTHEREMIGHTEXISTBASICWELFAREARGUMENTSFORCLUS
22、TERPOLICIES,THEREISSTILLTHEUNDERLYINGPROBLEMTHATTHERELEVANTAUTHORITIESOFTENLACKNECESSARYINFORMATIONANDKNOWLEDGEABOUTTHECHARACTEROFTHECLUSTERBENEFITS,WHATTHEEXACTCAUSESOFTHECLUSTERBENEFITSARE,WHICHCLUSTERSTHATGENERATEPARTICULARLYSTRONGCLUSTERBENEFITS,WHATACTUALLYCONSTITUTESTHECOORDINATIONPROBLEM,ANDT
23、HEROLEOFINTRAANDINTERREGIONALMARKETPOTENTIALSFORCLUSTERSFURTHERMORE,THEREAREOTHERPROBLEMSRELATEDTOCLUSTERPOLICIES,WHICHHAVETODOWITHTHERISKSFORMANIPULATION,LOBBYING,ANDTHEEXISTENCEOFASYMMETRICINFORMATION13ANOTHERPROBLEMRELATEDTOCLUSTERPOLICIESISTHATDIFFERENTECONOMICPROCESSESWORKATDIFFERENTTIMESCALESP
24、RODUCTMARKETS,FOREXAMPLE,NORMALLYCHANGETHROUGHRELATIVELYRAPIDPROCESSES,WHICHGENERATEDEMANDSTHATDURABLEREGIONALCHARACTERISTICS,SUCHASTHELABOURFORCEWITHITSPERTINENTSKILLS,REALCAPITAL,INFRASTRUCTURECAPITAL,ANDSOON,MUSTBEADJUSTEDASCOMPETITIONTOITSCHARACTERISDYNAMIC,THEREISACONSTANTNEEDTOUPGRADETHEREGION
25、ALECONOMICMILIEUOFCLUSTERSTHEPROBLEMISTHATSUCHCAPACITYANDQUALITYADJUSTMENTSAREASLOWERANDABOVEALLAMORESLUGGISHPROCESSTHANTHEPROCESSESINTHEPRODUCTMARKETS（JOHANSSONKARLSSON,2001）IFTHELAGSINTHEDEVELOPMENTOFLABOURSUPPLY,BUILTENVIRONMENTANDINFRASTRUCTUREARELARGE,THEGROWTHOFCLUSTERSMAYBERETARDEDANDRAPIDLYT
26、URNINTOANEGATIVEPHASETHEPOSSIBILITIESTOCOUNTERACTLAGSINTHECAPACITYANDQUALITYADJUSTMENTSANDTOCREATECONDITIONSFORASUSTAINABLECLUSTERGROWTHRESTSINLONGTERMANDCREDIBLEREGIONALCLUSTERANDOTHERDEVELOPMENTPOLICIES,WHICHARECAPABLEOFREDUCINGTHEUNCERTAINTYAMONGTHEECONOMICACTORSINTHECLUSTERABOUTTHEFUTUREGROWTHPR
27、OSPECTSOFTHECLUSTERACCORDINGTOTHEMODERNTHEORYOFENDOGENOUSREGIONALECONOMICGROWTHREGIONALGROWTHANDTHUSALSOCLUSTERGROWTHISSOMETHINGTHATGROWOUTOFINTERNALREGIONALCONDITIONS,WHICHCANBEINFLUENCED（JOHANSSON,KARLSSONSTOUGH,2001,EDS）INLINEWITHTHISVIEW,CLUSTERPOLICIESANDGENERALREGIONALDEVELOPMENTPOLICIESDEALWI
28、THCONDITIONS,WHICHESSENTIALLYMUSTBEDEVELOPEDANDIMPLEMENTEDWITHREGIONSPECIFICKNOWLEDGEASABASETHUS,CLUSTERPOLICIESMUSTBEIMPLEMENTEDATTHEREGIONALLEVELEVENIFAMORECOMPREHENSIVEVIEWANDFINANCIALSUPPORTMIGHTCOMEFROMTHENATIONALLEVELINTERNALECONOMIESOFSCALEMAINLYRESTOUTSIDETHEDOMAINOFECONOMICPOLICIESHOWEVER,P
29、OLICIES,WHICHLEADTOLOWERFIXEDCOSTSFORLABOURANDCAPITAL,REDUCETHEDEPENDENCEOFFIRMSONTHESIZEOFTHEREGIONALMARKETPOTENTIALMOREOVER,TOGETNEWCLUSTERSRUNNINGITISIMPORTANTTOCREATEOPTIMALCONDITIONSFORSTARTUPS,SPINOFFS,SPINOUTS,ANDFIRMGROWTHITISALSOIMPORTANTTOCREATEACLEARVISIONANDSTRONGIMAGEFORNEWCLUSTERSBYMEA
30、NSOFACONSCIOUSANDPROFILEDMARKETINGTHEGEOGRAPHICALTRANSACTIONCOSTSAREPARTLYDETERMINEDBYTHEINFRASTRUCTUREANDTRANSPORTPOLICIES,WHICHINMANYCOUNTRIESAREDETERMINEDATTHENATIONALLEVELLOWERGEOGRAPHICALTRANSACTIONCOSTSEXTENDSTHEBORDERSOFFUNCTIONALREGIONSANDINCREASESTHE14REGIONALMARKETPOTENTIAL,WHICHCREATESSCO
31、PEFORTHEDEVELOPMENTANDGROWTHOFMOREINDUSTRIESANDCLUSTERSANDOFFIRMSWITHINTERNALECONOMIESOFSCALETRANSPORTCOSTSAREBECOMINGANINCREASINGLYIMPORTANTFACTORFORTHEDEVELOPMENTOFCLUSTERSASOTHERCOSTSCONNECTEDTOINTERNATIONALTRADEDECREASEITISIMPORTANTTOOBSERVETHATTHEPROFITABILITYOFINVESTMENTSININFRASTRUCTUREISLARG
32、ERINREGIONSWITHCLUSTERSTHANINREGIONSWITHOUTCLUSTERSNORMALLYCOSTBENEFITCALCULATIONSOFINFRASTRUCTUREINVESTMENTSUSETODISREGARDTHISLARGEPARTSOFTHEKNOWLEDGEGENERATIONINAREGIONISCHARACTERISEDBYCOLLECTIVECHARACTERISTICSKNOWLEDGEDEVELOPEDBYONEFIRMTENDSOVERTIMETODIFFUSETOOTHERFIRMSINTHEREGIONTHISGENERATESINC
33、REASINGRETURNSINTHEREGIONALECONOMYASAWHOLE,IETHEGROWTHOFTHEREGIONALECONOMYCANBEINFLUENCEDBYINVESTMENTSINKNOWLEDGE,RD,ANDHUMANCAPITALEVENIFTHEREISNOONETOONERELATIONSHIPBETWEENKNOWLEDGEINTENSITYANDPROFITABLECLUSTERSTHEREARESTILLSTRONGREASONSTOBELIEVETHATCLUSTERSAREMORECOMMONINKNOWLEDGEINTENSIVEINDUSTRIESTHANINOTHERINDUSTRIESTHISIMPLIESTHATIFAREGIONWANTSTOSTIMULATECLUSTERGROWTHANDCLUSTERFORMATIONTHEREARESTRONGREASONSFORPUBLICINVESTMENTSINHIGHEREDUCATIONANDRDHOWEVER,ITISIMPORTANTTONOTICETHATPRECISIONINTHISCASEISMOREIMPORTANTTHANVOLUMETHEINVESTMENTSINHIGHEREDUCATIONANDRDMUSTBECLUSTERRELEVANT
