1、1本科毕业论文外文翻译外文文献译文标题农产品出口技术性贸易壁垒资料来源国会研究服务报告,1997,10,21作者杰佛里贝克尔摘要贸易技术壁垒(TBTS)是各个国家为了规范市场、保护本国消费者和自然资源而采取的范围宽广、形式多种多样的各种措施,但是这些措施也会用作歧视进口从而保护本国产品。农业方面的贸易壁垒大多数是那些为了保护人类、动植物免于污染物、疾病和病虫害伤害而设计的卫生与动植物检疫(SPS)措施。由于关于减少关税、进口配额和其他贸易限制的新贸易协定的出现,贸易技术壁垒(TBTS)受到农产品出口商和政策制定者们更多的关注。何谓技术壁垒近期贸易协定特别是1993年于加拿大、墨西哥签订的北美自
2、由贸易协定NAFTA和1994年世界贸易组织乌拉圭回合WTOUR多边贸易协定,各成员国承诺消除或减少各自国家对于农业贸易以及其它商品的贸易限制。贸易壁垒包括关税(进口产品税)以及其它可以限制贸易的非关税贸易壁垒措施包括进口配额、许可证制度、出口与国内生产补贴。在北美自由贸易协定和世界贸易组织乌拉圭回合协议之前,这类关税与非关税贸易壁垒NTBS争执主要以双边国家讨论如何进入对方市场为主。这些新的协定为贸易壁垒建立新规则与处罚办法,其目的是减少贸易扭曲带来的冲击。另一方面,这些新协议意图对各个国家日益频繁利用的所谓贸易技术壁垒TBTS建立更严厉的处罚措施。这些贸易技术壁垒乃是各个国家为了规范市场、
3、保护本国消费者和自然资源(包含其他目的)而采取的范围宽广、形式多种多样的各种措施,但是这些措施也会用作歧视进口产品,以便保护包括农业在内的国内行业。贸易技术壁垒(TBTS)是指那些为了保护人类、动植物免于疾病、病虫害和污染物伤害而设计的各种卫生与动植物检疫(SPS)措施。其例子包括诸如食物农药残留、减少所含致病原的肉制品加工标准、要求对谷物和进口货实施害虫熏杀等等。除了卫2生与动植物检疫(SPS)措施,贸易技术壁垒(TBTS)还包括产品重量、尺寸、包装、配方或标识标准、强制营养标签和保质期限等。“贸易技术壁垒”的宽泛定义被频繁应用于这些措施之中,他们甚至认为这与NAFTA和WTO的规定相符合(
4、即如国家努力立法保护其消费者和农业资源之等)。“持续地,技术措施作为一种非透明的隐性或不清晰的贸易障碍被公认为具有巨大的潜力或许已经被大范围滥用,因为对健康与安全的渴求被广泛认同,为此可以凌驾国际规则。”最新贸易协定条款各谈判参与方期待在WTO和NAFTA协定里应包含更严厉的农业处罚措施以便协定可为各国提供诱因,用新的技术壁垒替代行将过期的旧有非关税壁垒,继续保护其本国生产商。为了解决这方面可能出现的问题,WTO和NAFTA协定内包含广泛的术语,规范各国可能利用贸易技术壁垒(TBTS),特别是卫生与动植物检疫(SPS)的情形。这类术语意图令各国承诺只能合法地使用SPS和其它技术措施(即如保护人
5、类、动物或植物的健康)而不仅仅是为了变相地设置贸易障碍。卫生与动植物检疫(SPS)条款卫生与动植物检疫(SPS)措施在北美自由贸易协定(NAFTA)中,落在农业章节中,而在世贸组织乌拉圭回合(URWTO)则为一系列书面协议。其中一条针对农业,包括减少补贴和降低市场准入门槛等承诺。另一条则针对卫生与动植物检疫(SPS)卫生与动植物检疫(SPS)应用协议。尽管在形式上有所不同,在乌拉圭回合协定和北美自由贸易协定中,其卫生与动植物检疫(SPS)条款基本相似。基本权利与义务各国可以制定本国的人类、动植物生命或健康“适当的保护水平”措施。这些措施可以比其他国家严厉且不同于国际标准只要是基于科学的原则和风
6、险评估所作出的,但是须对所有其他国家一视同仁,而不得变相用作贸易壁垒。协调与对等原则为了促进国际贸易,鼓励各国采用相关的国际标准并相互协调那就是,采用通用的卫生与动植物检疫(SPS)措施。为了促进协调,协定引用诸如负责处理食品安全问题的食品法典委员会;专注于动物健康的国际兽医组织(IOE);关注植物健康的国际植物保护公约(IPPC)这样一些国际机构发布的专门科学知识和全球公认的标准作为其依据。对等原则意味着进口国必须接受另一个国家对等的卫生3与动植物检疫(SPS)措施(即使不是完全相同),与此对应,出口国也应该证明其实际措施达到了进口国相同的保护水平。透明度为了避免在卫生与动植物检疫(SPS)
7、规定上含混不清以至多变,各国必须提供一种机制,在有任何措施可能影响贸易之前通报其他国家并为他们提供提出疑问和发表意见的管道。地域化总的来说各国都在禁止输入在出口国已经受到不良病虫害影响的农产品。直到最近各国甚至禁止来自于出口国家内非受病虫害影响地区的产品。如果出口国能证明其产品来自于非受病虫害影响地区,那么,地域化则可为这类产品的进口提供一种可被接受的方式。贸易技术壁垒(TBT)条款WTO贸易技术壁垒(TBT)条款保护成员国采取措施保障出口质量、保护人类、动物和植物生命、防止欺诈行为的权利,而所施行的措施不得违反世界贸易组织协定之协议。贸易技术壁垒(TBT)中的许多协议在本质上与卫生与动植物检
8、疫(SPS)协议相同,包括通知义务和允许就受到的影响提出意见与建议,但是TBT协定明确规定SPS措施只受SPS协定影响。3北美自由贸易协定与标准相关措施章节中规定的贸易技术壁垒(TBT)条款也采取了类似的做法。SPS和TBT措施有时很类似,这令人难以判断到底是使用SPS还是TBT的规定。美国农业部的分析师指出通常应以他们的实际目的进行判断。例如产品保质期限制,如果是为了保障食品安全则使用SPS规定,如果是为了规管新鲜程度则使用TBT规定。争端解决乌拉圭协议还提出一个新理念“理解条款和用程序规范解决争端”来提供一种机制及时而地客观地解决国家之间的贸易争端,包括那些SPS措施和其它TBTS问题。在
9、乌拉圭回合争端解决程序之前,涉及争端的国家可以有效的阻止问题的解决,而在新体制下则是不可能的。如果某个世贸组织争端解决委员会最终判定某国的SPS或TBT措施违反了WTO规定的义务,WTO个成员国须执行该委员会的裁定,“犯错”国家(可以对裁决就法律理由及解释予以上诉)可以继续维持其措施,但是仅限于向投诉国家提供赔偿情况下才行。如果没做出赔偿且两国始终无法达成双方都接受的解决方案,4世贸委员会可以授权对该国实施报复。北美自由贸易协定NAFTA也有新的争端解决机制用以解决SPS措施和其它TBTS带来的问题。WTO与NAFTA争端解决程序允许向各个委员会寻求科学咨询。相关议题尽管到目前为止与TBTS相
10、关的问题在一步步地解决,但是大量的问题依然存在。举例来说,食品安全与环境倡导者们长期关注的正在致力于与国际标准(诸如食品法典委员会CODEX、国际兽医组织(IOE)和国际植物保护公约(IPPC)发布的标准)相一致的努力会削弱美国自身的食品安全与环境保护水准。一些倡导者认为,如果WTO争端解决委员会置疑其科学依据或降低其国际标准,那么美国的健康与安全标准会慢慢地被削弱。其他人士反驳说,当前贸易协定明确承认个别国家(以及州与地方)的权利,只要他们认为是适合的可以设置更强的保护措施。由于SPS和TBT条款(以及重要的争议解决程序)相对较新,分析员尚未找出最适合的方法计量经济与其它方面受到的冲击,甚至
11、在定义和相对重要性上仍然存在争议。这些都是政策制定者们在寻求扩大农产品贸易之路时可能遇到的问题。5外文文献原文TITLEAGRICULTURALEXPORTSTECHNICALBARRIERSTOTRADEMATERIALCONGRESSIONALRESEARCHSERVICEREPORTS,1997,10,21AUTHORGEOFFREBECKERSUMMARYTECHNICALBARRIERSTOTRADETBTSAREWIDELYDIVERGENTMEASURESTHATCOUNTRIESUSETOREGULATEMARKETS,PROTECTTHEIRCONSUMERS,ANDPRES
12、ERVENATURALRESOURCES,BUTWHICHCANALSODISCRIMINATEAGAINSTIMPORTSINFAVOROFDOMESTICPRODUCTSMOSTTBTSINAGRICULTUREARESANITARYANDPHYTOSANITARYSPSMEASURESDESIGNEDTOPROTECTHUMANS,ANIMALS,ANDPLANTSFROMCONTAMINANTS,DISEASES,ANDPESTSINTHEWAKEOFNEWTRADEAGREEMENTSAIMEDATREDUCINGTARIFFS,IMPORTQUOTAS,ANDOTHERTRADEB
13、ARRIERS,TBTSHAVEBECOMEMOREPROMINENTCONCERNSFORAGRICULTURALEXPORTERSANDPOLICYMAKERSRECENTTRADEAGREEMENTSNOTABLYTHE1993NORTHAMERICANFREETRADEAGREEMENTNAFTAWITHCANADAANDMEXICO,ANDTHE1994WORLDTRADEORGANIZATIONURUGUAYROUNDWTOURMULTILATERALAGREEMENTSINCLUDECOMMITMENTSBYMEMBERCOUNTRIESTOELIMINATEORREDUCETH
14、EIRBARRIERSTOTRADEINAGRICULTURALANDOTHERGOODSTRADEBARRIERSINCLUDETARIFFSTAXESONIMPORTEDPRODUCTS,ASWELLASMANYNONTARIFFMEASURESTHATCANRESTRICTTRADE,INCLUDINGIMPORTQUOTAS,RESTRICTIVELICENSINGSYSTEMS,EXPORTANDDOMESTICPRODUCTIONSUBSIDIESPRIORTOTHENAFTAANDWTOURAGREEMENTS,THESETYPESOFTARIFFANDNONTARIFFBARR
15、IERSNTBSWEREATTHECENTEROFMAJORDISPUTESBETWEENCOUNTRIESREGARDINGACCESSTOEACHOTHERSMARKETSTHENEWAGREEMENTSSUBJECTTHESEBARRIERSTONEWRULESANDDISCIPLINESAIMEDATREDUCINGTHEIRTRADEDISTORTINGIMPACTSINADDITION,THEAGREEMENTSATTEMPTTOESTABLISHSTRONGERDISCIPLINESFORYETANOTHERTYPEOFNTBTHATCOUNTRIESNOWUSEWITHGROW
16、INGFREQUENCYSOCALLEDTECHNICALBARRIERSTOTRADETBTSTHESEAREWIDELYDIVERGENTMEASURESTHATCOUNTRIESUSETOREGULATEMARKETS,PROTECTTHEIRCONSUMERS,ANDPRESERVENATURALRESOURCESAMONGOTHEROBJECTIVES,BUTWHICHCANALSOBEUSEDTODISCRIMINATEAGAINSTIMPORTSINORDERTOPROTECTDOMESTICINDUSTRIES,INCLUDINGAGRICULTURE6TBTSWITHTHEG
17、REATESTIMPACTONAGRICULTUREARETHEVARIOUSSANITARYANDPHYTOSANITARYSPSMEASURESDESIGNEDTOPROTECTHUMANS,ANIMALS,ANDPLANTSFROMDISEASES,PESTS,ANDOTHERCONTAMINANTSEXAMPLESARERESIDUELIMITSFORPESTICIDESINFOODS,PROCESSINGSTANDARDSFORMEATPRODUCTSTOREDUCEPATHOGENS,ANDFUMIGATIONREQUIREMENTSONGRAINORPRODUCEIMPORTST
18、OKILLUNWANTEDPESTSBESIDESSPSMEASURES,TBTSINCLUDERULESFORPRODUCTWEIGHT,SIZE,ORPACKAGINGINGREDIENTORIDENTITYSTANDARDSMANDATORYNUTRITIONLABELINGANDSHELFLIFERESTRICTIONSTHEBROADTERM“TECHNICALBARRIERSTOTRADE“ISFREQUENTLYAPPLIEDTOALLOFTHESEMEASURES,EVENWHERETHEYMAYBECONSISTENTWITHNAFTAANDWTORULESIE,LEGITI
19、MATEEFFORTSBYACOUNTRYTOPROTECTITSCONSUMERSANDAGRICULTURALRESOURCES“STILL,ITISWIDELYRECOGNIZEDTHATTHEREISENORMOUSPOTENTIALFOR,ANDPERHAPSWIDESPREADMISUSEOF,TECHNICALMEASURESASNONTRANSPARENTDISGUISEDORUNCLEAROBSTACLESTOTRADE,EVENWHENTHEBROADDESIRABILITYOFLOWERINGRISKSTOHEALTHANDSAFETYISACKNOWLEDGED,AND
20、DESPITEINTERNATIONALRULES“PROVISIONSOFRECENTTRADEAGREEMENTSNEGOTIATORSHADANTICIPATEDTHATTHEINCLUSIONOFSTRONGERAGRICULTURALDISCIPLINESINTHEWTOANDNAFTAAGREEMENTSMIGHTPROVIDEMOREINCENTIVEFORCOUNTRIESTOREPLACEEXPIRINGNTBSWITHNEWTECHNICALBARRIERSINORDERTOCONTINUETOPROTECTTHEIRDOMESTICPRODUCERSTOADDRESSTH
21、ISPOTENTIALPROBLEM,THEWTOANDNAFTAAGREEMENTSINCLUDEEXTENSIVELANGUAGEGOVERNINGTHECIRCUMSTANCESUNDERWHICHCOUNTRIESMAYIMPOSEBOTHTBTSINGENERAL,ANDSPSMEASURESINPARTICULARTHISLANGUAGEISINTENDEDTOCOMMITEACHCOUNTRYTOIMPOSINGONLYSPSANDOTHERTECHNICALMEASURESTHATARELEGITIMATEEG,TOPROTECTHUMAN,ANIMALORPLANTHEALT
22、H,NOTMERELYDISGUISEDBARRIERSTOTRADESPSPROVISIONSINNAFTA,SPSMEASURESAREINTHECHAPTERONAGRICULTURETHEURWTOISWRITTENASASERIESOFAGREEMENTSONEISDEVOTEDTOAGRICULTURE,INCLUDINGCOMMITMENTSTOREDUCESUBSIDIESANDINCREASEMARKETACCESSANOTHERISDEVOTEDTOSPSTHEAGREEMENTONTHEAPPLICATIONOFSANITARYANDPHYTOSANITARYMEASUR
23、ESDESPITETHESEDIFFERENCESINFORMAT,THESPSPROVISIONSINBOTHTHEURACCORDSANDNAFTAAREGENERALLYSIMILAR7BASICRIGHTSANDOBLIGATIONSEACHCOUNTRYMAYDECIDEITSOWN“APPROPRIATELEVELOFPROTECTION“OFHUMAN,ANIMAL,ORPLANTLIFEORHEALTHSUCHMEASURESWHICHCANBEMORESTRINGENTTHANOTHERCOUNTRIESANDDIFFERFROMINTERNATIONALBENCHMARKS
24、AREACCEPTABLEASLONGASTHEYAREBASEDONSCIENTIFICPRINCIPLESANDRISKASSESSMENT,APPLIEDCONSISTENTLYTOALLCOUNTRIES,ANDNOTUSEDASDISGUISEDTRADEBARRIERSHARMONIZATIONANDEQUIVALENCETOFACILITATETRADE,COUNTRIESAREENCOURAGEDTOUSERELEVANTINTERNATIONALSTANDARDSANDWORKTOWARDHARMONIZATIONTHATIS,THEADOPTIONOFCOMMONSPSME
25、ASURESTOPROMOTEHARMONIZATION,THEAGREEMENTSCITE,ASSOURCESOFSCIENTIFICEXPERTISEANDGLOBALLYRECOGNIZEDSTANDARDS,INTERNATIONALBODIESSUCHASTHECODEXALIMENTARIUSCOMMISSION,WHICHDEALSWITHFOODSAFETYISSUESTHEINTERNATIONALOFFICEOFEPIZOOTICSIOE,FORANIMALHEALTHANDDISEASESANDTHEINTERNATIONALPLANTPROTECTIONCONVENTI
26、ONIPPC,FORPLANTHEALTHEQUIVALENCEMEANSTHATEACHIMPORTINGCOUNTRYMUSTACCEPTTHESPSMEASURESOFANOTHERCOUNTRYASEQUIVALENTTOITSOWNEVENIFTHEYARENOTEXACTLYTHESAME,ASLONGASTHEEXPORTINGCOUNTRYOBJECTIVELYDEMONSTRATESTOTHEIMPORTINGCOUNTRYTHATITSMEASURESACHIEVETHESAMELEVELOFPROTECTIONTRANSPARENCYOUTOFRECOGNITIONTHA
27、TSPSREGULATIONSCANBEUNCLEAROREVENCAPRICIOUS,COUNTRIESMUSTHAVEAMECHANISMFORNOTIFYINGOTHERSINADVANCEABOUTANYMEASURESTHATCOULDAFFECTTRADE,ANDPROVIDINGAMEANSFORASKINGQUESTIONSABOUTANDCOMMENTINGONTHEMREGIONALIZATIONCOUNTRIESGENERALLYHAVEPROHIBITEDIMPORTSOFAFOREIGNAGRICULTURALPRODUCTIFITHASBEENASSOCIATEDW
28、ITHANUNWANTEDPESTORDISEASEINTHEEXPORTINGCOUNTRYUNTILRECENTLY,IMPORTINGCOUNTRIESWOULDNOTPERMITANYOFTHATPRODUCTFROMTHEEXPORTINGCOUNTRY,EVENIFITCAMEFROMAREGIONTHATDIDNOTHAVETHEDISEASEORPESTREGIONALIZATIONPROVIDESFORTHEACCEPTANCEOFSUCHIMPORTSIFTHEEXPORTINGCOUNTRYCANPROVETHATTHEYCAMEFROMADISEASEFREEORPES
29、TFREEAREATBTPROVISIONSTHEWTOSAGREEMENTONTECHNICALBARRIERSTOTRADE“PROTECTSTHERIGHTOFMEMBERSTOADOPTMEASURESWHICHENSURETHEQUALITYOFEXPORTSPROTECTHUMAN,ANIMAL,ORPLANTLIFEPROTECTTHEENVIRONMENTORPREVENTDECEPTIVEPRACTICES,ASLONGASTHESEMEASURESDONOTBREACHTHEDISCIPLINESSETFORTHINTHEAGREEMENTMANYOFTHEDISCIPLI
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31、EDMEASURES,TAKEAGENERALLYSIMILARAPPROACHSPSANDTBTMEASURESSOMETIMESCANBEIDENTICAL,MAKINGITDIFFICULTTODETERMINEWHETHERTHEYSHOULDBECHALLENGEDORDEFENDEDUNDERTHESPSORTHETBTDISCIPLINESUSDAANALYSTSNOTETHATTHEYUSUALLYCANBEDISTINGUISHEDBYTHEIROBJECTIVEFOREXAMPLE,APRODUCTSHELFLIFERESTRICTIONMIGHTHAVEBEENADOPT
32、EDEITHERTOENSUREFOODSAFETYMAKINGITANSPSMEASURE,ORTOREGULATEFRESHNESSTBTDISPUTESETTLEMENTTHEURACCORDSALSOINCLUDEANEW“UNDERSTANDINGONRULESANDPROCEDURESGOVERNINGTHESETTLEMENTOFDISPUTES“TOPROVIDEAMECHANISMFORRESOLVING,INATIMELYANDOBJECTIVEMANNER,TRADEDISPUTESBETWEENCOUNTRIES,INCLUDINGTHOSEINVOLVINGSPSME
33、ASURESANDOTHERTBTSUNDERPREURDISPUTESETTLEMENTPROCEDURES,ACOUNTRYINVOLVEDINTHEDISPUTEEFFECTIVELYCOULDBLOCKADECISIONAGAINSTIT,WHICHCANNOTOCCURUNDERTHENEWSYSTEMIFAWTODISPUTESETTLEMENTPANELULTIMATELYDETERMINESTHATACOUNTRYSSPSORTBTMEASUREISINCONSISTENTWITHWTOOBLIGATIONS,ANDWTOMEMBERSADOPTTHEPANELREPORT,T
34、HE“GUILTY“COUNTRYWHICHCANAPPEALTHEDECISIONONMATTERSOFLAWANDLEGALINTERPRETATIONCOULDSTILLMAINTAINTHEMEASURE,BUTONLYIFITALSOPROVIDESCOMPENSATIONTOTHECOMPLAININGCOUNTRYIFCOMPENSATIONISNOTPROVIDEDANDTHETWOCOUNTRIESSTILLFAILTOREACHAMUTUALLYACCEPTABLESOLUTION,THEWTOPANELCANAUTHORIZETRADERETALIATIONAGAINST
35、THECOUNTRYNAFTAALSOCONTAINSANEWDISPUTERESOLUTIONMECHANISMTHATCANBEUSEDTOCHALLENGESPSMEASURESANDOTHERTBTSBOTHTHEWTOANDNAFTAPROCEDURESALLOWFORSCIENTIFICADVICETOTHEPANELSRELATEDISSUESDESPITETHESTEPSTODATETOADDRESSPROBLEMSRELATEDTOTBTS,NUMEROUSISSUESREMAINFOREXAMPLE,FOODSAFETYANDENVIRONMENTALADVOCATESHA
36、VELONGEXPRESSEDCONCERNSTHATTHEONGOINGEFFORTSTOHARMONIZEINTERNATIONALSTANDARDSSUCHASUNDERCODEX,IOE,ANDIPPCMIGHTENCOURAGETHEUNITEDSTATESTOWEAKENITSOWNFOODSAFETYANDENVIRONMENTAL9PROTECTIONSRELATEDLY,USHEALTHANDSAFETYSTANDARDSCOULDBEUNDERMINEDIFWTODISPUTESETTLEMENTPANELSQUESTIONTHEIRSCIENTIFICBASISAND/O
37、RATTEMPTTOCOMPARETHEMTOWEAKERINTERNATIONALSTANDARDS,SOMEADVOCATESARGUEOTHERSCOUNTERTHATTHECURRENTTRADEAGREEMENTSEXPLICITLYRECOGNIZETHERIGHTOFINDIVIDUALNATIONS,ASWELLASSTATESANDLOCALITIESTOENACTSTRONGERPROTECTIONSIFTHEYBELIEVETHEYAREAPPROPRIATEIFAWTOORNAFTADISPUTEPANELISCONVENEDTODETERMINEWHETHERANSP
38、SMEASUREHASASCIENTIFICBASIS,ITISONLYTASKEDWITHDETERMININGWHETHERTHESPSMEASUREATISSUEISBASEDONSCIENTIFICPRINCIPLES,ANDISBEINGAPPLIEDCONSISTENTLYNOTWHETHERTHEMEASURENECESSARILYUSESTHE“BESTSCIENCE“BECAUSETHESPSANDTBTPROVISIONSANDTHEIMPORTANTDISPUTESETTLEMENTPROCEDURESARERELATIVELYNEW,ANALYSTSHAVENOTYETSETTLEDONTHEMOSTAPPROPRIATEMETHODSFORMEASURINGTHEIRECONOMICANDOTHERIMPACTSEVENTHEIRDEFINITIONANDRELATIVEIMPORTANCEARESTILLBEINGDEBATEDTHESEAREAMONGTHEQUESTIONSTHATPOLICYMAKERSARELIKELYTOENCOUNTERASTHEYCONSIDERWAYSTOEXPANDAGRICULTURALTRADE