1、1本科毕业论文外文翻译外文文献译文标题农业出口技术性交易壁垒资料来源环境和自然资源政策作者杰弗里S贝克尔概括技术性贸易壁垒（TBTS）正被大规模的使用。各国把此作为监管市场的工具，并以此保护他们的消费者，保存国内的自然资源。但技术性贸易壁垒也导致了了歧视进口市场，因为倾向于保护本国产品。多数农业上的技术性贸易壁垒是出于保护人类，动物，植物不受环境污染，疾病以及害虫的负面影响的公共卫生措施及熏蒸处理。新的交易协议渐渐苏醒，这些协议意在减少关税，减少进口额，以及减少其他交易壁垒，技术性交易壁垒已然为农业出口商，以及政策制定者给予了更多更好的考虑。什么是技术性交易壁垒近期的交易协议尤其是1993年北
2、美自由贸易协定NAFTA包括了加拿大和墨西哥，以及1994年世界贸易组织乌拉圭回合WTOUR多边贸易协定包括成员国国家承诺消除或是减少他们的在农业以及一些其他大宗商品上的交易壁垒。交易壁垒包括关税（进口产品的税收），同样也包括那些可以限制交易的许多非关税措施，比如进口定额，严格执照制度，出口产品和国内产品的减退。在北美自由贸易协定和乌拉圭回合之前，三种关税和非关税壁垒是一国进入他国市场的主要争端的中心。为了减少协议的使交易扭曲的影响，新的协议赋予了壁垒新的规则和原则。除此之外，新的协议为了为其他类型的非关税的建立更强的原则，国家现在正越来越多的使用所谓的技术性壁垒来进行交易。国家运用许多歧视性
3、措施来监管市场，保护他们的消费者，保留他们本国的自然资源（包括其他的一些物品），但是，运用什么措施同样能够歧视进口以至于来保护国内工业，包括农业。技术性贸易壁垒对农业有巨大的影响。他们是不同的卫生与植物检疫措施（SPS），这些措施意在保护人类，动物以及植物不受疾病，害虫以及其它环境污染的负面影响。比如食品行业的农药残留限制，为肉制品制定相关标准以减少病原体的携带，对谷物及进口产品进行熏蒸检疫以杀死有害的昆虫。除此之外，卫生与植物检验措施，技术性交易壁垒涵盖了有关产品重量，大小，或是包装；整合或是识别标准；强制性营养成分标签；以及厂家批发限制。2这个宽泛的名词“技术性交易壁垒”常常被用及所有的这
4、些措施。即使是那些理应与北美自由贸易协定NAFTA和乌拉圭回合WTOUR多边贸易协定保持一致的措施（比如说，一国为保护本国消费者及农业资源的立法措施）。“新协议”是这些障碍的新规则和新学科，旨在削减其扭曲贸易的影响。此外，该协议试图建立另一个较强的学科，国家现在使用的日益频繁所谓的技术性贸易壁垒非关税壁垒类型（技术性贸易壁垒）。这些都是大相径庭的国家使用规范市场的措施，保护他们的消费者，保护自然资源（除其他目标），但它也可以用于为了保护国内产业，包括对农业影响最大的农业壁垒对进口产品的歧视的各种卫生和植物检疫（SPS）措施。这些措施旨在保护人类，防止动物和植物疾病，害虫及其他污染物。举例，食品
5、中的农药残留限量标准，加工肉类制品的标准，以减少病原体，并要求对粮食熏蒸或生产进口来杀死有害的害虫。除了植物检疫措施，就技术性贸易壁垒来说，包括产品的重量，体积或包装规则成分或身份标准，强制性营养标签和保质期的限制。“技术性贸易壁垒”经常被应用到所有这些措施，即使在他们可能是一致的北美自由贸易协定和世贸组织规则（即，由一个国家的合法努力，以保护其消费者和农业资源）。尽管如此，它被广泛承认，有巨大的不透明性，可能广泛滥用技术措施变相或不清楚的贸易障碍，即使有对降低健康风险的可取性和安全性的广泛承认。对美国农产品出口和贸易政策的影响简单的识别和保持轨道的技术措施，许多国家正在使用已成为贸易组织官方
6、成员的权利。谈判消除关税，主要是为了保护国家不受外国产品竞争的措施，但它是一种美国农业利益优先。随着关税壁垒的拆除，我们经历了基于对健康意识的不断增长的市场中断，安全索赔不能以科学合理为原则，内布拉斯加州农场局主席在9月23日，1997年，劳斯的农业小组委员会的听证会，表示待立法授权谈判和执行新的协议（即“快车道”）的快速程序。“政府当局同意，但（像许多农业团体）也认为，进一步的贸易谈判提供为解决这些问题的最佳途径。以下是技术壁垒的最近的例子，以美国的利益认为是不合理的，但是，执行国家抗衡都符合国际贸易义务和必要性，以保护他们的消费者和/或农业资源升了欧洲联盟（欧盟）的禁令，自1989年以来，
7、地方从动物肉类产品的进口，治疗以促进生长的激素，它有效地阻止美国肉类（主要是牛肉）的出口额，每年约100万美元。欧盟禁止对从美国进口禽肉的这一年（价值50美元每年），因为欧盟将不承认美国处理器的安全系统氯化水清洗尸体。作为报复，美国禁止约1万美元，对欧盟家禽产品的进口升朝鲜边境通关手续，可以推迟一些进口易腐产3品周，与亚洲其他地区。这些措施和规则，对全部进口农产品进行检查和测试，而不是随机抽样，并要求每个装运进口的新鲜农产品要解压，排序和重新包装，删除任何腐坏产品欧盟决定，1997年11月1日起实施，人类的食品必须贴上标签，表明他们是否是转基因玉米和大豆。美国农业部经济研究局（ERS）和外国农
8、业服务（FAS）的企图库存，总结和量化了对美国农产品的国外技术性贸易壁垒的整体成本的影响。1996年的出口，利用从其他来源中的信息收集，美国农业部的外国农业重视行业团体。FAS从该数据库中，发现在1997年，超过350措施，负面影响估计为58亿美元。东亚大多数的技术壁垒，对美国出口近29亿美元的估计影响。美洲占近13亿美元，欧洲为900万美元以上。处理产品占总额58亿美元的13亿美元左右。其他谷物和油籽，约13亿美元，动物产品，近900万美元的水果和蔬菜，超过600万美元；“其他产品”，包括棉花，种子，坚果，鱼类和林业产品，所有的约100亿美元。4外文文献原文TITLEAGRICULTURAL
9、EXPORTSTECHNICALBARRIERSTOTRADEMATERIALSOURCEENVIRONMENTANDNATURALRESOURCESPOLICYDIVISIONAUTHORGEOFFREYSBECKERSUMMARYTECHNICALBARRIERSTOTRADETBTSAREWIDELYDIVERGENTMEASURESTHATCOUNTRIESUSETOREGULATEMARKETS,PROTECTTHEIRCONSUMERS,ANDPRESERVENATURALRESOURCES,BUTWHICHCANALSODISCRIMINATEAGAINSTIMPORTSINFA
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12、ODSTRADEBARRIERSINCLUDETARIFFSTAXESONIMPORTEDPRODUCTS,ASWELLASMANYNONTARIFFMEASURESTHATCANRESTRICTTRADE,INCLUDINGIMPORTQUOTAS,RESTRICTIVELICENSINGSYSTEMS,EXPORTANDDOMESTICPRODUCTIONSUBSIDIESPRIORTOTHENAFTAANDWTOURAGREEMENTS,THESETYPESOFTARIFFANDNONTARIFFBARRIERSNTBSWEREATTHECENTEROFMAJORDISPUTESBETW
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14、DETBTSTHESEAREWIDELYDIVERGENTMEASURESTHATCOUNTRIESUSETOREGULATEMARKETS,PROTECTTHEIRCONSUMERS,ANDPRESERVENATURALRESOURCESAMONGOTHEROBJECTIVES,BUTWHICHCANALSOBEUSEDTODISCRIMINATEAGAINSTIMPORTSINORDERTOPROTECTDOMESTICINDUSTRIES,INCLUDINGAGRICULTURETBTSWITHTHEGREATESTIMPACTONAGRICULTUREARETHEVARIOUSSANI
15、TARYAND5PHYTOSANITARYSPSMEASURESDESIGNEDTOPROTECTHUMANS,ANIMALS,ANDPLANTSFROMDISEASES,PESTS,ANDOTHERCONTAMINANTSEXAMPLESARERESIDUELIMITSFORPESTICIDESINFOODS,PROCESSINGSTANDARDSFORMEATPRODUCTSTOREDUCEPATHOGENS,ANDFUMIGATIONREQUIREMENTSONGRAINORPRODUCEIMPORTSTOKILLUNWANTEDPESTSBESIDESSPSMEASURES,TBTSI
16、NCLUDERULESFORPRODUCTWEIGHT,SIZE,ORPACKAGINGINGREDIENTORIDENTITYSTANDARDSMANDATORYNUTRITIONLABELINGANDSHELFLIFERESTRICTIONSTHEBROADTERM“TECHNICALBARRIERSTOTRADE“ISFREQUENTLYAPPLIEDTOALLOFTHESEMEASURES,EVENWHERETHEYMAYBECONSISTENTWITHNAFTAANDWTORULESIE,LEGITIMATEEFFORTSBYACOUNTRYTOPROTECTITSCONSUMERS
17、ANDAGRICULTURALRESOURCES“STILL,ITISWIDELYRECOGNIZEDTHATTHEREISENORMOUSPOTENTIALFOR,ANDPERHAPSWIDESPREADMISUSEOF,TECHNICALMEASURESASNONTRANSPARENTDISGUISEDORUNCLEAROBSTACLESTOTRADE,EVENWHENTHEBROADDESIRABILITYOFLOWERINGRISKSTOHEALTHANDSAFETYISACKNOWLEDGED,ANDDESPITEINTERNATIONALRULES“IMPACTSONUSAGRIC
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22、LYAWTOPANELRECENTLYRULEDINFAVOROFTHEUNITEDSTATES,BUTTHEEUISAPPEALING6ANEUPROHIBITIONTHISYEARAGAINSTPOULTRYMEATIMPORTSFROMTHEUNITEDSTATESVALUEDAT50MILLIONANNUALLY,BECAUSETHEEUWILLNOTRECOGNIZEASSAFETHEUSPROCESSORSSYSTEMFORWASHINGCARCASSESINCHLORINATEDWATERINRETALIATION,THEUNITEDSTATESBANNEDSOME1MILLIO
23、NINEUPOULTRYPRODUCTIMPORTSKOREANBORDERCLEARANCEPROCEDURESTHATCANDELAYIMPORTEDPERISHABLEPRODUCTSFORSEVERALWEEKS,COMPAREDWITHSEVERALDAYSELSEWHEREINASIATHESEINCLUDEARULETHAT100OFIMPORTEDAGRICULTURALPRODUCTSBEINSPECTEDANDTESTEDRATHERTHANSAMPLEDRANDOMLY,ANDAREQUIREMENTTHATEVERYSHIPMENTOFIMPORTEDFRESHPROD
24、UCEBEUNPACKED,SORTED,ANDREPACKEDTOREMOVEANYSPOILEDPRODUCTANEUDECISION,EFFECTIVENOVEMBER1,1997,THOSEHUMANFOODSMUSTBELABELEDTOINDICATEWHETHERTHEYWEREPRODUCEDFROMGENETICALLYMODIFIEDCORNANDSOYBEANSUSDASECONOMICRESEARCHSERVICEERSANDFOREIGNAGRICULTURALSERVICEFASATTEMPTEDTOINVENTORY,SUMMARIZE,ANDQUANTIFYTH
25、EOVERALLCOSTIMPACTSOFFOREIGNTBTSONUSAGRICULTURALEXPORTSFOR1996,USINGINFORMATIONGATHEREDFROM,AMONGOTHERSOURCES,USDASFOREIGNAGRICULTURALATTACHESANDINDUSTRYGROUPS2WORKINGFROMTHATDATABASE,FASFOUNDIN1997MORETHAN350MEASURESNEGATIVELYAFFECTINGANESTIMATED58BILLIONINPOTENTIALUSAGRICULTURALEXPORTSEASTASIAHADT
26、HEMOSTTECHNICALBARRIERS,WITHANESTIMATEDIMPACTONUSEXPORTSOFNEARLY29BILLIONTHEAMERICASACCOUNTEDFORNEARLY13BILLIONANDEUROPEFORMORETHAN900MILLIONPROCESSEDPRODUCTSACCOUNTEDFORABOUT13BILLIONOFTHE58BILLIONTOTALOTHERSWEREGRAINSANDOILSEEDS,ABOUT13BILLIONANIMALPRODUCTS,NEARLY900MILLIONFRUITSANDVEGETABLES,OVER
27、600MILLIONAND“OTHERPRODUCTS“INCLUDINGCOTTON,SEEDS,NUTS,ANDFISHANDFORESTRYPRODUCTS,ABOUT1BILLIONINALLOTHERNATIONSARGUETHATTHEUNITEDSTATESMAINTAINSITSOWNSPSMEASURESANDOTHERTBTS,MANYOFWHICHTHEYVIEWASUNJUSTIFIABLEEXAMPLESINCLUDEAPROHIBITIONAGAINSTSHRIMPIMPORTSFROMSOUTHEASTASIANCOUNTRIESBECAUSETHEIRTRAWL
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29、VECREDIBILITY,USINTERESTSMUSTBEPREPAREDTOACKNOWLEDGETHESEBARRIERSANDTONEGOTIATETHEIRREMOVAL,ITISARGUED7PROVISIONSOFRECENTTRADEAGREEMENTSNEGOTIATORSHADANTICIPATEDTHATTHEINCLUSIONOFSTRONGERAGRICULTURALDISCIPLINESINTHEWTOANDNAFTAAGREEMENTSMIGHTPROVIDEMOREINCENTIVEFORCOUNTRIESTOREPLACEEXPIRINGNTBSWITHNE
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33、HICHCANBEMORESTRINGENTTHANOTHERCOUNTRIESANDDIFFERFROMINTERNATIONALBENCHMARKSAREACCEPTABLEASLONGASTHEYAREBASEDONSCIENTIFICPRINCIPLESANDRISKASSESSMENT,APPLIEDCONSISTENTLYTOALLCOUNTRIES,ANDNOTUSEDASDISGUISEDTRADEBARRIERSHARMONIZATIONANDEQUIVALENCETOFACILITATETRADE,COUNTRIESAREENCOURAGEDTOUSERELEVANTINT
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39、THESEMEASURESDONOTBREACHTHEDISCIPLINESSETFORTHINTHEAGREEMENTMANYOFTHEDISCIPLINESINTHETBTAGREEMENTAREESSENTIALLYIDENTICALTOTHOSEINTHESPSAGREEMENTINCLUDINGTHEOBLIGATIONTONOTIFYANDALLOWFORCOMMENTSONPROPOSEDSTANDARDSAFFECTINGTRADE,BUTTHETBTAGREEMENTEXPLICITLYSTATESTHATSPSMEASURESAREBOUNDONLYBYTHETERMSOF
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42、YANDOBJECTIVEMANNER,TRADEDISPUTESBETWEENCOUNTRIES,INCLUDINGTHOSEINVOLVINGSPSMEASURESANDOTHERTBTSUNDERPREURDISPUTESETTLEMENTPROCEDURES,ACOUNTRYINVOLVEDINTHEDISPUTEEFFECTIVELYCOULDBLOCKADECISIONAGAINSTIT,WHICHCANNOTOCCURUNDERTHENEWSYSTEMIFAWTODISPUTESETTLEMENTPANELULTIMATELYDETERMINESTHATACOUNTRYSSPSO
43、RTBTMEASUREISINCONSISTENTWITHWTOOBLIGATIONS,ANDWTOMEMBERSADOPTTHEPANELREPORT,THE“GUILTY“COUNTRYWHICHCANAPPEALTHEDECISIONONMATTERSOFLAWANDLEGALINTERPRETATIONCOULDSTILLMAINTAINTHEMEASURE,BUTONLYIFITALSOPROVIDESCOMPENSATIONTOTHECOMPLAININGCOUNTRYIFCOMPENSATIONISNOTPROVIDEDANDTHETWOCOUNTRIESSTILLFAILTOR
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45、SANDTBTDISCIPLINESNOWINPLACE,THEUSGOVERNMENTSPROCESSFORIDENTIFYINGANDDEALINGWITHTHEMHASTAKENONNEWIMPORTANCEFORAGRICULTURE,MOSTOFTHISEFFORTISCOORDINATED,ATLEASTINTHEINITIALSTAGES,BYUSDA/FASSFOODSAFETYANDTECHNICALSERVICEDIVISIONFSTSDTHEDIVISIONMAINTAINSANDREGULARLYUPDATESTHEDATABASEONFOREIGNTBTMEASURE
46、SWITHAPOTENTIALIMPACTONTRADE,WHICHISLISTEDEVENTHOUGHTHEYMAYCOMPLYWITHWTOOROTHERINTERNATIONALTRADEAGREEMENTPROVISIONSFSTSDCONTINUALLYCOLLECTSINFORMATIONONTHESEMEASURESFROMTHEWTO,WHICHCOUNTRIESAREOBLIGATEDTONOTIFYWHENEVERTHEYPROPOSEANEWTBTMEASUREINDUSTRYGROUPSATTEMPTINGTOEXPORTPRODUCTSTHEUSTRFASSOVERS
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