1、1本科毕业论文外文翻译外文文献译文标题如何嵌入全球价值链影响产业集群升级资料来源REGIONALSTUDIES,2002,36910171027作者约翰汉弗莱和休伯特施密茨随着一体化的深入,越来越多的发展中国家融入全球市场,公司在这些国家面临的竞争压力与日俱增。生产商在面对这种压力时,为维持或增加收入他们也必须增加他们的技能含量的活动和/或进入具有缝隙市场通过壁垒,因此以某种程度上与这些压力绝缘。我们称这种变化升级活动。对于两个集群价值链方法,强调其重要的升级为面对全球市场竞争的日益激烈。同样地,也都强调治理中所扮演的角色升级,使用术语治理表示经济活动的协调关系。治理尤其重要的是知识的产生,转
2、移和扩散,导致创新,使企业能够改善他们的表现。然而,这两种方法完全不同的位点看到治理经营,学习群内或链和提高发展中国家企业的机会相当独特的影响。总结在表1的差异。群集文学强调地方一级的治理的重要性,并通过公司和与地方机构之间的互动作用的增量升级。升级资源被视为主要来自在当地。更广阔的世界中的链接经常承认,但他们是弱理论。总体来说,外部世界的特点是作为一个市场呈现的竞争挑战,必须通过提高集群内的组织和努力满足。表1治理和提升集群与价值链集群价值链治理范围内的地方特点是企业间的密切合作和活跃的私人和公共机构的强大的地方治理。没有进行讨论。本地企业间的合作和政府的政策在很大程度上被忽略。与外部世界的
3、关系对外关系理论或假设基础上的公平市场交易。强大的内部管理链。通过国际贸易日益管理内部网络。升级重点增量升级(边干边学)内,通过互动的传播和创新集群。对于重大升增量升级,通过学习,做新的任务分配链导致公司的可能。间断升级“组2级举措,当地的创新中心发挥了重要的作用。织继承”允许入境到更复杂的价值链。关键的竞争挑战促进通过在集群相互作用的集体效率。访问链和发展与主要客户的联系。地方治理的重要性的一个来源的竞争力尤为强调在两行最近的工作区域科学尤其是工业园区文学和创新研究。这两个物体的动力学方面的工作达到考虑市场竞争力不足通过大路,即通过升级。在工业园区文学、经验的“第三意大利”和其他欧洲的经验的
4、上升在1980年代晚期和1990年代早期,一种新型的地方/区域产业政策,1强调代表团之功能,不同种类的政府和非政府机构2通过机构运作接近企业3扩展的关系从民营企业家的公共部门4通过强调自助行业协会和制片人联盟布鲁斯科,1990。换句话说,一种主张是开发和快速扩散的内在知识集群不仅仅是附带的协同作用的结果,采用“工业大气的,但政策网络孕育的公共建筑和私人参与者斯科特,1996。这导致了一个新的重点区域的关系学习和创新效应例如,斯托波,1995年的环境创新和1996年的法语著作)。地方政策网络的重要性的中心在于工作创新系统。在20世纪90年代,随着技术的发展有关的文献已从对个别企业和创新与扩散建立
5、一个与学习的交互(伦德瓦尔,1993)大的区别重点关注强,再到领导创新系统的研究首先在日益在区域和地方一级(如弗里曼,1995埃德基,1997巴尔奇克等,1998)。虽然集群文学来自于传统(与阿尔弗雷德马歇尔开始),其中强调了生产体系,公司靠近,集聚经济和偶然的,对本地创新系统的工作从一开始关注更多的知识体系的重要性加强知识的组织和互补的优点自觉地追。但是,最重要的是要强调,就是都认为旨在培养地方治理的升级和竞争力的重要补充,附带产生集聚协作。这一观点的工业地区内部复杂但外部关系简单的可以追溯到阿尔弗雷德马歇尔“在他的最初制定工业园区,马歇尔想象了一个地区业务结构由小,局部地拥有的公司投资和生
6、产决策局部在这一地区,大量的贸易是买方和卖方之间进行,经常面3对长期合同,或承诺。虽然没有明确的马歇尔这么说,连接和/或合作企业地区以外的假定是最小的”马库森,1996297299。当代研究,认识到外部关系的重要性,特别是当这些集群是出口导向型,但关系的本质特征是公平或明或暗地。尤其是意大利工业区大量的文献(见,例如,派克等,1990派克和施潘根贝格尔,1992年。科森蒂诺等,1996)倾向于定性为这些地区包含所需的全部活动范围为世界市场生产成品,或至少保留核心功能如果一些生产活动转移到低工资地区。同时,这些地区的创新能力,并从外区(布鲁斯科,1996153)所需的来源编纂知识获取和吸收。此功
7、能可在企业层面和地方机构,如技术研究所,可见一斑。升级的努力集中在改善产品和工艺,和来自集群内部。两个集群创新系统和当地途径被用于分析当地工业在发展中国家(卡乔拉托和拉斯特雷斯,2000年在发展中国家纳德维,1999鲁比洛蒂,1997年,施密茨,1995)。他们的申请已被当地企业和地方机构之间的相互作用的浓度特点。升级被看作是主要由集群内的企业和机构带动。相反,与外部世界的关系,注意要少得多。全球价值链的文献中有着非常不同的看法间连接。它还涉及到以升级但知识需要它流经链。特别注意了强大的领先公司作用的进行功能整合、协调国际分散活动”加雷菲,199941和治理结构,其定义是由加雷菲作为“权柄和能
8、力关系,确定财力、物力和人力资源分配和流量在一个链”199497。下面我们将论证,行使这种治理,全球龙头企业也发挥了重要作用,在确定与当地生产者的升级机会。这将产生一个供应商和买家之间的关系的重视内链,不论它们的所在位置,并在当地的联系相应的去加重。全球价值链分析强调,当地生产者借鉴全球买家提供了大量有关如何改善他们的生产流程,实现一致的高品质,并提高响应速度。新的全球市场(基辛和拉尔,1992年本地生产商皮奥里和鲁伊斯杜兰的1998年施米茨和克诺林,2000年),这提升效果尤为显著。也有产品升级换代的范围。加雷菲属性这“组织继承”,这个过程由制造商开始生产为迎合低端市场的买家,然后将针对更复
9、杂的细分市场的买家“这外地购房者的继承,从而允许制造商提高他们的设施满足买方需求更复杂的产品“(加雷菲,199953)。它也可以产生链中的龙头企业寻求提升自己的最终产品提供。杜兰和汉弗莱(2000)认为,在该领域的新鲜蔬菜,超市驱动器产品的升级换代,通过引进更先进的加工和包装,以及全新的产品线。链条视角也强调进一步类别的升级、功能升级。价值链分析是有关生产经销系统是地理上分散的。这意味着公司和地方专注于一个很窄范围内的功能。特别是在发展4中国家可能集群专门从事生产活动,在产品设计中扮演小角色,市场营销或品牌的问题。因此,获得新的功能的过程中产生更高的收入相反,停止执行低收入活动是一个潜在的升级
10、战略至关重要的组成部分。他的研究得出加雷菲服装连锁店进入链条生产具有良好的前景,为提高生产和发展到内设计、营销和品牌作为一种结果相结合的“学习出口和组织继承”。一个清晰的例子,在发展中国家生产商升级案例东亚的服装生产商。根据加雷菲199953他们搬离A装配进口,B增加了当地生产和采购,C产品的设计在市场上销售的其他公司的品牌形象,最终D出售自己的品牌商品,内部和外部的市场。其他研究人员对此都不太乐观。苏塞克斯大学的马丁贝尔提到加雷菲情况下作为“良性的自动扶梯(个人通信)。虽然进展(一)(二)是没有争议的,但移动阶段(C)(D)是不能想当然的。鞋类链上的研究表明,在一些连锁的全球买家的劝阻,如果
11、不妨碍当地生产者(施米茨和克诺林,2000年),设计,营销和品牌。当地生产者面临的障碍,因为这样的升级买家的核心竞争力的侵犯。换句话说,权力关系可能抑制升级和限制知识流动的内链。而这些研究结论的不同,它们都有一个共同的外部力量重点影响集群升级。本文的一个关键命题是,这种影响与链的组织方式和升级考虑的类型而异。讨论到目前为止提到了以下三种类型升级过程改变输入到输出更有效地经常重组生产系统或引进的先进技术。产品升级搬到更复杂的产品线可以被定义为从增加的单位值。功能升级获得新的功能或放弃现有的功能,以提高整体技术内容的活动。第四种类型是跨部门的升级企业的生产活动进入新的集群。例如,学到的知识在生产可
12、能被用于电视,显示器等电脑设备。这样的水平移动到新的部门似乎是台湾的能力的核心技能获得一席之地密集行业。区分这些类型的升级是第一步。第二步是更仔细地分析价值链治理的本质。第二部分解释了为什么价值链特色是联系与不同类型的企业价值链,为什么是中国一项明确的协调活动的独立公司,在全球经济是很常见的。5外文文献原文TITLEHOWDOESINSERTIONINGLOBALVALUECHAINSAFFECTUPGRADINGININDUSTRIALCLUSTERSMATERIALSOURCEREGIONALSTUDIES,2002,36910171027AUTHORJOHNHUMPHREY,HUBERT
13、SCHMITZWITHTHEDEEPENINGINTEGRATIONOFDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESINTOGLOBALMARKETS,FIRMSINTHESECOUNTRIESFACEINCREASINGCOMPETITIVEPRESSUREFORPRODUCERSTOMAINTAINORINCREASEINCOMESINTHEFACEOFTHISPRESSURE,THEYMUSTEITHERINCREASETHESKILLCONTENTOFTHEIRACTIVITIESAND/ORMOVEINTOMARKETNICHESWHICHHAVEENTRYBARRIERSANDARETH
14、EREFOREINSULATEDTOSOMEEXTENTFROMTHESEPRESSURESWEREFERTOSUCHSHIFTSINACTIVITIESASUPGRADINGBOTHTHECLUSTERANDVALUECHAINAPPROACHESEMPHASISETHEIMPORTANCEOFUPGRADINGINORDERTOFACEINCREASINGCOMPETITIONINGLOBALMARKETSSIMILARLY,BOTHEMPHASISETHEROLEPLAYEDBYGOVERNANCEINUPGRADING,USINGTHETERMGOVERNANCETODENOTECOO
15、RDINATIONOFECONOMICACTIVITIESTHROUGHNONMARKETRELATIONSHIPSGOVERNANCEISPARTICULARLYIMPORTANTFORTHEGENERATION,TRANSFERANDDIFFUSIONOFKNOWLEDGELEADINGTOINNOVATION,WHICHENABLESFIRMSTOIMPROVETHEIRPERFORMANCEHOWEVER,THETWOAPPROACHESSEEGOVERNANCEOPERATINGATQUITEDISTINCTLOCI,WITHQUITEDISTINCTIMPLICATIONSFORL
16、EARNINGWITHINCLUSTERSORCHAINSANDUPGRADINGOPPORTUNITIESFORFIRMSINDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESTHEDIFFERENCESARESUMMARISEDINTABLE1THECLUSTERLITERATUREEMPHASISESTHEIMPORTANCEOFLOCALLEVELGOVERNANCEANDTHEROLEOFINCREMENTALUPGRADINGTHROUGHINTERACTIONSBETWEENFIRMSANDWITHLOCALINSTITUTIONSTHERESOURCESFORUPGRADINGARESEE
17、NMAINLYTOCOMEFROMWITHINTHELOCALITYLINKSWITHTHEWIDERWORLDAREFREQUENTLYACKNOWLEDGED,BUTTHEYAREWEAKLYTHEORISEDOVERALL,THEEXTERNALWORLDISCHARACTERISEDASAMARKETPRESENTINGCOMPETITIVECHALLENGESTHATMUSTBEMETTHROUGHIMPROVEDORGANISATIONANDEFFORTWITHINTHECLUSTERTABLE1GOVERNANCEANDUPGRADINGCLUSTERSVSVALUECHAINS
18、CLUSTERSVALUECHAINSGOVERNANCEWITHINTHELOCALITYSTRONGLOCALGOVERNANCECHARACTERISEDBYCLOSENOTDISCUSSEDLOCALINTERFIRMCOOPERATIONAND6INTERFIRMCOOPERATIONANDACTIVEPRIVATEANDPUBLICINSTITUTIONSGOVERNMENTPOLICYLARGELYIGNOREDRELATIONSWITHTHEEXTERNALWORLDEXTERNALRELATIONSNOTTHEORISED,ORASSUMEDTOBEBASEDONARMSLE
19、NGTHMARKETTRANSACTIONSSTRONGGOVERNANCEWITHINTHECHAININTERNATIONALTRADEINCREASINGLYMANAGEDTHROUGHINTERFIRMNETWORKSUPGRADINGEMPHASISONINCREMENTALUPGRADINGLEARNINGBYDOINGANDTHESPREADOFINNOVATIONSTHROUGHINTERACTIONSWITHINTHECLUSTERFORMAJORUPGRADINGINITIATIVES,LOCALINNOVATIONCENTRESPLAYANIMPORTANTROLEINC
20、REMENTALUPGRADINGMADEPOSSIBLETHROUGHLEARNINGBYDOINGANDTHEALLOCATIONOFNEWTASKSBYTHECHAINSLEADFIRMDISCONTINUOUSUPGRADINGMADEPOSSIBLEBYORGANISATIONALSUCCESSIONALLOWINGENTRYINTOMORECOMPLEXVALUECHAINSKEYCOMPETITIVECHALLENGEPROMOTINGCOLLECTIVEEFFICIENCYTHROUGHINTERACTIONSWITHINTHECLUSTERGAININGACCESSTOCHA
21、INSANDDEVELOPINGLINKAGESWITHMAJORCUSTOMERSTHEIMPORTANCEOFLOCALGOVERNANCEASASOURCEOFCOMPETITIVENESSHASBEENPARTICULARLYSTRESSEDINTWOLINESOFRECENTWORKREGIONALSCIENCEANDINPARTICULARTHEINDUSTRIALDISTRICTLITERATUREANDINNOVATIONSTUDIESTHESETWOBODIESOFWORKBOTHCONSIDERMARKETDYNAMICSINSUFFICIENTTOACHIEVECOMPE
22、TITIVENESSVIATHEHIGHROAD,IETHROUGHUPGRADINGINTHEINDUSTRIALDISTRICTLITERATURE,THEEXPERIENCEOFTHE“THIRDITALY“ANDOTHEREUROPEANEXPERIENCESGAVERISEINTHELATE1980S/EARLY1990STOANEWMODELOFLOCAL/REGIONALINDUSTRIALPOLICYWHICH1EMPHASISESDELEGATIONOFFUNCTIONSTOADIVERSE7RANGEOFGOVERNMENTALANDNONGOVERNMENTALINSTI
23、TUTIONS2OPERATESTHROUGHINSTITUTIONSCLOSETOTHEENTERPRISE3EXTENDSTHECONCERNWITHENTREPRENEURSHIPFROMTHEPRIVATETOTHEPUBLICSECTORAND4STRESSESSELFHELPTHROUGHBUSINESSASSOCIATIONSANDPRODUCERCONSORTIABRUSCO,1990INOTHERWORDS,THEPROPOSITIONISTHATTHEDEVELOPMENTANDRAPIDDIFFUSIONOFKNOWLEDGEWITHINTHECLUSTERARENOTS
24、OLELYTHERESULTOFINCIDENTALSYNERGIES,THEINDUSTRIALATMOSPHERE,BUTAREFOSTEREDBYPOLICYNETWORKSOFPUBLICANDPRIVATEACTORSSCOTT,1996THISHASLEDTOANEWEMPHASISONTHEREGIONASANEXUSOFLEARNINGANDINNOVATIONEFFECTSFOREXAMPLE,STORPER,1995ANDFRANCOPHONEWRITINGSONTHEMILIEUINNOVATEUR,MAILLAT,1996THEIMPORTANCEOFLOCALPOLI
25、CYNETWORKSISALSOCENTRALTOTHEWORKONLOCALINNOVATIONSYSTEMSINTHE1990S,THELITERATURECONCERNEDWITHTECHNOLOGICALDEVELOPMENTMOVEDFROMAFOCUSONTHEINDIVIDUALFIRMANDASTRONGDISTINCTIONBETWEENINNOVATIONANDDIFFUSIONTOWARDSAGREATERCONCERNWITHLEARNINGBYINTERACTIONLUNDVALL,1993,LEADINGTHENTOTHESTUDIESOFINNOVATIONSYS
26、TEMS,FIRSTATTHENATIONALTHENINCREASINGLYATTHEREGIONALANDLOCALLEVELEGFREEMAN,1995EDQUIST,1997BRACZYKETAL,1998WHILETHECLUSTERLITERATURECOMESFROMATRADITIONSTARTINGWITHALFREDMARSHALLWHICHEMPHASISEDTHEPRODUCTIONSYSTEM,THEPROXIMITYOFFIRMS,ANDTHEINCIDENTALAGGLOMERATIONECONOMIES,THEWORKONLOCALINNOVATIONSYSTE
27、MSWASFROMTHEBEGINNINGMORECONCERNEDWITHTHEKNOWLEDGESYSTEM,THEIMPORTANCEOFKNOWLEDGEENHANCINGORGANISATIONS,ANDTHEBENEFITSOFCONSCIOUSLYPURSUEDCOMPLEMENTARITYTHEMOSTIMPORTANTTHINGTOEMPHASISE,HOWEVER,ISTHATBOTHSEELOCALGOVERNANCEAIMEDATFOSTERINGUPGRADINGANDCOMPETITIVENESSASANESSENTIALCOMPLEMENTTOTHEINCIDEN
28、TALSYNERGIESARISINGFROMAGGLOMERATIONTHISVIEWOFINDUSTRIALDISTRICTRELATIONSHIPSASINTERNALLYCOMPLEXBUTEXTERNALLYSIMPLEGOESBACKTOALFREDMARSHALL“INHISORIGINALFORMULATIONOFTHEINDUSTRIALDISTRICT,MARSHALLENVISIONEDAREGIONWHERETHEBUSINESSSTRUCTUREISCOMPRISEDOFSMALL,LOCALLYOWNEDFIRMSTHATMAKEINVESTMENTANDPRODU
29、CTIONDECISIONSLOCALLYWITHINTHEDISTRICT,SUBSTANTIALTRADEISTRANSACTEDBETWEENBUYERSANDSELLERS,OFTENENTAILINGLONGTERMCONTRACTSORCOMMITMENTSALTHOUGHMARSHALLDIDNOTEXPLICITLYSAYSO,LINKAGESAND/ORCOOPERATIONWITHFIRMSOUTSIDETHEDISTRICTISASSUMEDTOBEMINIMAL“MARKUSEN,19962972998CONTEMPORARYSTUDIES,RECOGNISETHEIM
30、PORTANCEOFEXTERNALRELATIONSHIPS,ESPECIALLYWHERETHESECLUSTERSAREEXPORTORIENTED,BUTTHENATUREOFTHERELATIONSHIPISCHARACTERISEDEXPLICITLYORIMPLICITLYASARMSLENGTHINPARTICULAR,THEEXTENSIVELITERATUREONITALIANINDUSTRIALDISTRICTSSEE,FOREXAMPLE,PYKEETAL,1990PYKEANDSENGENBERGER,1992COSSENTINOETAL,1996TENDSTOCHA
31、RACTERISETHESEDISTRICTSASCONTAININGTHEFULLRANGEOFACTIVITIESREQUIREDTOPRODUCEFINISHEDPRODUCTSFORTHEWORLDMARKET,ORATTHEVERYLEASTRETAININGCOREFUNCTIONSIFSOMEPRODUCTIONACTIVITIESARESHIFTEDTOLOWERWAGEAREASATTHESAMETIME,THESEDISTRICTSARECAPABLEOFINNOVATIONANDALSOOFACQUIRINGANDASSIMILATINGCODIFIEDKNOWLEDGE
32、FROMSOURCESOUTSIDETHEDISTRICTASREQUIREDBRUSCO,1996153THISCAPABILITYMAYBEEVIDENTATTHEFIRMLEVELANDINLOCALINSTITUTIONS,SUCHASTECHNOLOGYINSTITUTESTHEUPGRADINGEFFORTSCONCENTRATEONIMPROVINGPRODUCTSANDPROCESSESANDCOMEFROMWITHINTHECLUSTERITSELFBOTHTHECLUSTERANDTHELOCALINNOVATIONSYSTEMAPPROACHESHAVEBEENUSEDT
33、OANALYSELOCALINDUSTRIALDEVELOPMENTINDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESCASSIOLATOANDLASTRES,2000NADVI,1999RABELLOTTI,1997SCHMITZ,1995ATHEIRAPPLICATIONHASBEENCHARACTERISEDBYTHECONCENTRATIONONTHEINTERACTIONBETWEENLOCALFIRMSANDWITHLOCALINSTITUTIONSUPGRADINGISSEENASBEINGDRIVENLARGELYBYFIRMSANDINSTITUTIONSWITHINTHECLUST
34、ERINCONTRAST,RELATIONSHIPSWITHTHEEXTERNALWORLDAREGIVENMUCHLESSATTENTIONTHELITERATUREONGLOBALVALUECHAINSTAKESAVERYDIFFERENTVIEWOFINTERFIRMLINKAGESITISALSOCONCERNEDWITHUPGRADINGBUTTHEKNOWLEDGEREQUIREDFORITFLOWSTHROUGHTHECHAINPARTICULARATTENTIONHASBEENGIVENTOTHEROLEOFPOWERFULLEADFIRMSTHATUNDERTAKETHEFU
35、NCTIONALINTEGRATIONANDCOORDINATIONOFINTERNATIONALLYDISPERSEDACTIVITIESGEREFFI,199941ANDTOGOVERNANCESTRUCTURES,DEFINEDBYGEREFFIASAUTHORITYANDPOWERRELATIONSHIPSTHATDETERMINEHOWFINANCIAL,MATERIAL,ANDHUMANRESOURCESAREALLOCATEDANDFLOWWITHINACHAIN199497WEWILLARGUEBELOWTHATBYEXERCISINGTHISGOVERNANCE,GLOBAL
36、LEADFIRMSALSOPLAYANIMPORTANTROLEINDETERMININGTHEUPGRADINGOPPORTUNITIESOFLOCALPRODUCERSTHISPRODUCESANEMPHASISONRELATIONSHIPSBETWEENSUPPLIERSANDBUYERSWITHINACHAINIRRESPECTIVEOFWHERETHEYARELOCATED,ANDACORRESPONDINGDEEMPHASISONLINKAGESWITHINTHELOCALITYGLOBALVALUECHAINANALYSISEMPHASISESTHATLOCALPRODUCERS
37、LEARNAGREATDEALFROM9GLOBALBUYERSABOUTHOWTOIMPROVETHEIRPRODUCTIONPROCESSES,ATTAINCONSISTENTANDHIGHQUALITY,ANDINCREASETHESPEEDOFRESPONSETHISUPGRADINGEFFECTISPARTICULARLYSIGNIFICANTFORLOCALPRODUCERSNEWTOTHEGLOBALMARKETKEESINGANDLALL,1992PIOREANDRUIZDURN,1998SCHMITZANDKNORRINGA,2000THEREISALSOSCOPEFORPR
38、ODUCTUPGRADINGGEREFFIATTRIBUTESTHISTOORGANISATIONALSUCCESSION,APROCESSBYWHICHMANUFACTURERSSTARTPRODUCINGFORBUYERSCATERINGFORTHELOWENDOFTHEMARKETANDTHENMOVEUPTOBUYERSTARGETINGMORESOPHISTICATEDMARKETSEGMENTSTHISSUCCESSIONOFFOREIGNBUYERSTHUSPERMITTEDMANUFACTURERSTOUPGRADETHEIRFACILITIESASTHEYMETBUYERDE
39、MANDSFORMORESOPHISTICATEDPRODUCTSGEREFFI,199953ITCANALSOARISEWHENTHELEADFIRMSINTHECHAINLOOKTOUPGRADETHEIRFINALPRODUCTOFFERINGDOLANANDHUMPHREY2000ARGUETHATINTHEFRESHVEGETABLESSECTOR,SUPERMARKETSDRIVEPRODUCTUPGRADINGBYINTRODUCINGMORESOPHISTICATEDPROCESSINGANDPACKAGING,ASWELLASENTIRELYNEWPRODUCTLINESTH
40、ECHAINPERSPECTIVEALSOEMPHASISESAFURTHERCATEGORYOFUPGRADING,FUNCTIONALUPGRADINGVALUECHAINANALYSISISCONCERNEDWITHPRODUCTIONDISTRIBUTIONSYSTEMSTHATAREGEOGRAPHICALLYDISPERSEDTHISMEANSTHATFIRMSANDLOCALITIESMAYSPECIALISEINANARROWRANGEOFFUNCTIONSINPARTICULAR,CLUSTERSINDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESMAYBESPECIALISEDINP
41、RODUCTIONACTIVITIES,PLAYINGLITTLEROLEINPRODUCTDESIGN,MARKETINGORBRANDINGTHEREFORE,THEPROCESSOFACQUIRINGNEWFUNCTIONSWHICHGENERATEHIGHERINCOMESAND,CONVERSELY,CEASINGTOPERFORMLOWINCOMEACTIVITIESISPOTENTIALLYACRITICALPARTOFANUPGRADINGSTRATEGYGEREFFICONCLUDESFROMHISRESEARCHONTHEGARMENTCHAINTHATPRODUCERSG
42、AININGACCESSTOTHECHAINHAVEGOODPROSPECTSFORUPGRADINGWITHINPRODUCTIONANDSUBSEQUENTLYINTODESIGN,MARKETINGANDBRANDINGASACONSEQUENCEOFACOMBINATIONOFLEARNINGBYEXPORTINGANDORGANISATIONALSUCCESSIONONECLEAREXAMPLEOFUPGRADINGAMONGDEVELOPINGCOUNTRYPRODUCERSISTHECASEOFEASTASIANGARMENTPRODUCERSACCORDINGTOGEREFFI
43、199947THEYMOVEDFROMAASSEMBLYOFIMPORTEDINPUTS,TOBINCREASEDLOCALPRODUCTIONANDSOURCING,TOCTHEDESIGNOFPRODUCTSSOLDUNDERTHEBRANDSOFOTHERFIRMS,ANDFINALLYTODTHESALEOFOWNBRANDEDMERCHANDISEININTERNALANDEXTERNALMARKETSOTHERRESEARCHERSARELESSOPTIMISTICMARTINBELLOFSPRU,UNIVERSITYOFSUSSEX,HASREFERREDTOTHEGEREFFI
44、SCENARIOASTHEBENIGNESCALATORPERSONALCOMMUNICATIONWHILE10THEPROGRESSIONFROMATOBISNOTCONTROVERSIAL,MOVINGTOSTAGESCANDDCANNOTBETAKENFORGRANTEDRESEARCHONTHEFOOTWEARCHAINSUGGESTSTHATINSOMECHAINSGLOBALBUYERSDISCOURAGE,IFNOTOBSTRUCT,DESIGN,MARKETINGANDBRANDINGBYLOCALPRODUCERSSCHMITZANDKNORRINGA,2000LOCALPR
45、ODUCERSFACEOBSTACLESBECAUSESUCHUPGRADINGENCROACHESONTHEIRBUYERSCORECOMPETENCEINOTHERWORDS,POWERRELATIONSMAYINHIBITUPGRADINGANDLIMITKNOWLEDGEFLOWSWITHINTHECHAINWHILETHECONCLUSIONSOFTHESESTUDIESDIFFER,THEYHAVEACOMMONEMPHASISONTHEEXTERNALPOWERSTHATINFLUENCEUPGRADINGINTHECLUSTERAKEYPROPOSITIONOFTHISPAPE
46、RISTHATTHISINFLUENCEVARIESWITHTHEWAYTHECHAINISORGANISEDANDWITHTHETYPEOFUPGRADINGCONSIDEREDTHEDISCUSSIONSOFARHASREFERREDTOTHEFOLLOWINGTHREETYPESPROCESSUPGRADINGTRANSFORMINGINPUTSINTOOUTPUTSMOREEFFICIENTLYBYREORGANISINGTHEPRODUCTIONSYSTEMORINTRODUCINGSUPERIORTECHNOLOGYPRODUCTUPGRADINGMOVINGINTOMORESOP
47、HISTICATEDPRODUCTLINESWHICHCANBEDEFINEDINTERMSOFINCREASEDUNITVALUESFUNCTIONALUPGRADINGACQUIRINGNEWFUNCTIONSORABANDONINGEXISTINGFUNCTIONSTOINCREASETHEOVERALLSKILLCONTENTOFACTIVITIESAFOURTHTYPEISINTERSECTORALUPGRADINGFIRMSOFCLUSTERSMOVEINTONEWPRODUCTIVEACTIVITIESFOREXAMPLE,KNOWLEDGEACQUIREDINPRODUCING
48、TELEVISIONSMIGHTBEUSEDTOMAKEMONITORSANDOTHERCOMPUTEREQUIPMENTSUCHHORIZONTALMOVESINTONEWSECTORSSEEMTOHAVEBEENCENTRALTOTAIWANSABILITYTOGAINAFOOTHOLDINSKILLINTENSIVESECTORSDISTINGUISHINGBETWEENTHESETYPESOFUPGRADINGISTHEFIRSTSTEPTHESECONDSTEPISTOANALYSEMORECAREFULLYTHENATUREOFVALUECHAINGOVERNANCETHENEXTSECTIONEXPLAINSWHYVALUECHAINSARECHARACTERISEDBYDIFFERENTTYPESOFINTERFIRMLINKAGESANDWHYVALUECHAINSINWHICHTHEREISANEXPLICITCOORDINATIONOFTHEACTIVITIESOFINDEPENDENTFIRMSARECOMMONINTHEGLOBALECONOMY