1、Comment zhb1: 以为中心Comment zhb2: 某种电子Comment zhb3: adj.晶体的Comment zhb4: 极少例外Comment zhb5: 周围环境的Comment zhb6: 不透明的Comment zhb7: 柔软的；易延展的Comment zhb8: 永久地，长期不变地Comment zhb9: =far from,much less thanComment zhb10: crystallinity ,kristlintiComment zhb11: n. 棋盘Unit 1 Metals金属The use of metals has always b
2、een a key factor in the development of the social systems of man. Of the roughly 100 basic elements of which all matter is composed, about half are classified as metals. The distinction between a metal and a nonmetal is not always clear-cut. The most basic definition centers around the type of bondi
3、ng existing between the atoms of the element, and around the characteristics of certain of the electrons associated with these atoms. In a more practical way, however, a metal can be defined as an element which has a particular package of properties.Metals are crystalline when in the solid state and
4、, with few exceptions (e.g. mercury), are solid at ambient temperatures. They are good conductors of heat and electricity and are opaque to light. They usually have a comparatively high density. Many metals are ductile-that is, their shape can be changed permanently by the application of a force wit
5、hout breaking. The forces required to cause this deformation and those required to break or fracture a metal are comparatively high, although, the fracture forces is not nearly as high as would be expected from simple consideration of the forces required to tear apart the atoms of the metal.One of t
6、he more significant of these characteristics from our point of view is that of crystallinity. A crystalline solid is one in which the constituent atoms are located in a regular three-dimensional array as if they were located at the corners of the squares of a three-dimensional chessboard. The spacin
7、g of the atoms in the array is of the same order as the size of the atoms, the actual spacing being a characteristic of the particular metal. The directions of the axes of the array define the orientation of the crystal in space. The metals 在人类社会的发展中，金属的应用起着关键性的作用。构成物质的大约 100种基本元素中，大约有一半为金属。金属和非金属之间
8、的区别不是特别明显。最基本的定义集中在元素原子间存在的连接形式和与这些原子相关联的电子的某些特性。然而，在实际应用中，可以将具有某些特性集合金属定义为某种元素。除了少数例外金属在常温下是固态的。它们是热和电的良导体，不透光。它们往往具有较高的密度。许多金属具有延展性，也就是说，在不被破坏的情况下它们的形状在外力的作用下可以发生变化。引起永久变形所需的力和最终使金属断裂所需的力相当大，尽管发生断裂所需的力远没有像所预期的撕开金属原子所需的力那么大。从我们的观点来看，在所有的特性中结晶性是最重要的。结晶体是这样一种结构，组成它的原子定位在规则的三维排列中，仿佛位于三维棋盘的方格的角上。原子间距随着
9、原子大小呈规律性变化，原子间距是金属的一种特性。三维排列的轴线决定了晶体在空间中的方向。在工程实践中应用的金属由大量的晶体组成，这些晶体称之为晶粒。在大多数情况下，晶粒在空间中是自由排列的。在原子范围内，晶粒之间相互接触紧密结合。晶粒之间连接区域被称为晶界。Comment zhb12: 晶粒Comment zhb13: 一般情况下Comment zhb14: 也就是Comment zhb15: 不可避免地Comment zhb16: metallic mitlik, me-adj. 金属的，含金属的Comment zhb17: 有害的Comment zhb18: 杂质Comment zhb19
10、: 合金元素Comment zhb20: 故意地，蓄意地Comment zhb21: adj. 大量的；实质的；内容充实的 substantial evidence:实（质）体证据|实质性证据 |实质证据 substantial order:大宗订单|大订单Comment zhb22: 无论如何，不管怎样Comment zhb23: 一致的commonly used in engineering practice are composed of a large number of such crystals, called grains. In the most general case, t
11、he crystals of the various grains are randomly oriented in space. The grains are everywhere in intimate contact with one another and joined together on an atomic scale. The region at which they join is known as a grain boundary.An absolutely pure metal (i.e. one composed of only one type of atom) ha
12、s never been produced. Engineers would not be particularly interested in such a metal even if it were to be produced, because it would be soft and weak. The metals used commercially inevitably contain small amounts of one or more foreign elements, either metallic or nonmetallic. These foreign elemen
13、ts may be detrimental, they may be beneficial, or they may have no influence at all on a particular property. If disadvantageous, the foreign elements tend to be known as impurities. If advantageous, they tend to be known as alloying elements. Alloying elements are commonly added deliberately in sub
14、stantial amounts in engineering materials. The result is known as an alloy.The distinction between the descriptors “metal” and “alloy” is not clear-cut. The term “metal” may be used to encompass both a commercially pure metal and its alloys. Perhaps it can be said that the more deliberately an alloy
15、ing addition has been made and the larger the amount of the addition, the more likely it is that the product will specifically be called an alloy. In any event, the chemical composition of a metal or an alloy must be known and controlled within certain limits if consistent performance is to be achie
16、ved in service. Thus chemical composition has to be taken into account when developing an understanding of the factors which determine the properties of metals and their alloys.Of the 50 or so metallic elements, only a few are produced and used in large quantities in 绝对纯净的金属从来也没有被生产出来过。即使绝对纯净的金属可以生产
17、出来，工程师们对它们也并不会特别感兴趣，因为它们很柔软、脆弱。实际应用中的金属往往都包含着一定数量的一种或多种外来金属或非金属元素，这些外来元素可能是有害的也可能是有益的或者它们对某种特定的属性没有影响。如果是有害的，这些外来元素被认为是杂质。如果是有益的，它们被认为是合金元素。在工程材料中往往被特意地加入一定数量的合金元素。得到的物质被叫做合金。金属和合金区别不大。金属这个词可以包括工业用纯金属和它的合金。也许可以这样说，合金元素越故意的被添加，被添加的合金元素的量越大，那么生产出来的产品越倾向于被称之为合金。不管怎样，如果想使一种金属或合金在使用中表现出稳定一致的特性，在其中添加何种化学成
18、分，它的量多大都应该在控制范围之内。因此，当想了解决定金属和合金性质的因素时，应充分考虑它们的化学组成。在 50种左右的金属元素里，工程实践中只有少数金属被大量生产和使用。到目前Comment zhb24: 铁Comment zhb25: 普遍的，无处不在的Comment zhb26: 铝Comment zhb27: taiteinim, ti-n. 化钛（金属元素）Comment zhb28: 相当Comment zhb29: 主要地Comment zhb30: 广泛地Comment zhb31: adj. 秘传的；限于圈内人的；难懂的Esoteric Buddhism:密宗| 密宗，特别是
19、指西藏的喇嘛教。Comment zhb32: Suffice it to say that you love me.只要说你爱我就够了。2. Suffice it to say that the gun was his.只需说这枪是他的就够了。Comment zhb33: 容易地Comment zhb34: ,h:dnbiltin. 可硬化性；淬硬性Comment zhb35: ,veilbilti是产品在被调用时能够运行（即未处于失效或修复状态）的概率。此量度考虑了产品的可靠性（多久会失效）和可用性（多久能被修复） 。 engineering practice. The most impor
20、tant by far is iron, on which are based the ubiquitous steels and cast irons (basically alloys of iron and carbon). They account for about 98% by weight of all metals produced. Next in importance for structural uses (that is, for structures that are expected to carry loads) are aluminum, copper, nic
21、kel, and titanium. Aluminum accounts for about 0.8% by weight of all metals produced, and copper about 0.7%, leaving only 0.5% for all other metals. As might be expected, the remainders are all used in rather special applications. For example, nickel alloys are used principally in corrosion-and heat
22、-resistant applications, while titanium is used extensively in the aerospace industry because its alloys have good combinations of high strength and low density. Both nickel and titanium are used in high-cost, high-quality applications, and, indeed, it is their high cost that tends to restrict their
23、 application.We cannot discuss these more esoteric properties here. Suffice it to say that a whole complex of properties in addition to structural strength is required of an alloy before it will be accepted into, and survive in, engineering practice. It may, for example, have to be strong and yet ha
24、ve reasonable corrosion resistance; it may have to be able to be fabricated by a particular process such as deep drawing, machining, or welding; it may have to be readily recyclable; and its cost and availability may be of critical importance.为止最重要的是铁，以它为基础构成了处处可见的钢和铸铁。 （主要由铁和碳构成的合金）它们的重量占所有生产出来的金属重
25、量的 98%。在结构应用（也就是说，可以承受载荷的结构）中居于其次位置的是铝、铜、镍和钛。在所有的金属产量中，铝占0.8，铜占 0.7，剩下的占 0.5。剩下的金属用于相对特殊的用途。例如，镍合金主要用于抗磨损和耐高温的用途，由于钛合金具有高强度和低密度的综合特性，钛被广泛应用于航空工业中。镍合钛有高成本和高质量的使用特性，事实上，它们高的成本限制了它们的应用。我们不能在这里讨论这些深奥的特性。在合金材料被采用和应用于工程实际之前，掌握其结构强度和它的综合性质就够了。举例来说，它可以强度很高，并且有好的耐磨性；它可以被例如拉伸加工，机械加工，或焊接等特殊工艺来加工出来；它可以被循环利用；它的成
26、本和实用性是首要的。Unit 2 Selection of Construction Materials工程材料的选择There is not a great difference between “this” steel and “that” steel; all are very similar in mechanical properties. Selection must be made on factors such as hardenability, price, and availability, and not with the idea that “this” steel c
27、an do something no other can do because it 在钢之间没有太大的区别；所有的钢在机械性能方面都是近似的。它们的选取标准是诸如脆硬性，价格，和可用性等。不仅仅是因为这种钢含有 2的合金元素另一种钢含有 1而使前者具有了后者没有的某些能力，或者是某种钢具有神奇的名字。经过热处理Comment zhb36: mistirisadj. 神秘的；不可思议的；难解的Comment zhb37: adj. 极大的，巨大的；惊人的Comment zhb38: m,i:nbiltin. 切削性；机械加工性Comment zhb39: 无论做什么都是 白费力，都改变不了既定
28、的现 实Comment zhb40: 几乎，差不多jComment zhb41: at a single blow= at one blowat a single blow:一下子|一举| 一击Comment zhb42: contains 2 percent instead of 1 percent of a certain alloying element, or because it has a mysterious(神秘的，不可思议的) name. A tremendous range of properties is available in any steel after heat
29、 treatment; this is particularly true of alloy steels.后，任何一种钢都具有大范围的特性；这种性质同样在合金钢中存在。Considerations in fabrication(制造)The properties of the final part (hardness, strength, and machinability), rather than properties required by forging, govern the selection of material. The properties required for fo
30、rging have very little relation to the final properties of the material; therefore, not much can be done to improve its forgeability. Higher-carbon steel is difficult to forge. Large grain size is best if subsequent heat treatment will refine the grain size.关于加工的考虑最后零件的特性（硬度、强度和可加工性）而不是锻造特性决定了材料的选择。
31、可锻性与材料的最后特性联系不大；因此，提高金属的可锻造性价值不大。高碳钢很难锻造。如果在随后的热处理过程进行细化，大尺寸晶粒是最好的。Low-carbon, nickel-chromium(铬) steels are just about as plastic at high temperature under a single 520-ftlb(1 ftlb=1.35582J) blow as plain steels of similar carbon content. Nickel decreases forgeability of medium-carbon steels, but h
32、as little effect on low-carbon steels. Chromium seems to harden steel at forging temperatures, but vanadium(钒) has no discernible(可辨别的) effect; neither has the method of manufacture any effect on high-carbon steel.在高温下低碳，镍铬合金钢在受到 520-ftlb的冲击下表现出与相同碳含量普通钢几乎同样的塑性。镍减少了中碳钢的可锻性，但对低碳钢影响不大。铬在锻造温度下时使钢硬化，但钒没
33、有明显的效果；两种加工方法对高碳钢没有影响。FormabilityThe cold-formability of steel is a function(功能) of its tensile strength combined with ductility. The tensile strength and yield point must not be high or too much work will be required in bending（弯曲）; likewise（同样地）, the steel must have sufficient（充足的） ductility to fl
34、ow to the required shape without cracking. The force required depends on the yield point, because deformation starts in the plastic range above the yield point of steel. Work-hardening also occurs here, progressively（日益增多地） stiffening（使变硬） the metal and causing difficulty, particularly（独特的，显著的） in t
35、he low-carbon steels.成形钢的冷成形是它的拉伸强度和延展性相结合的结果。拉伸强度和屈服点不能太高否则在发生弯曲时需要做很多工作；与之相类似，钢应该有高延展性，使其在没有断裂的情况下成形。加工力的大小取决于屈服点，因为钢在屈服点之上才开始变形。与此同时，加工硬化也同时发生，金属变得越来越硬，增加加工难度，尤其在低碳钢中容易发生。It is quite interesting in this connection（关于这一点，就此而论） to discover that deep draws can sometimes be made in one rapid operatio
36、n that could not possibly be done leisurely（缓慢地，从在这方面，相当有趣的是你将发现有时可通过一次快速加载完成大拉伸，但以缓慢的方式两三次加载却不能实现。如果拉伸进行了一半就停止了，那么在再加工之前应先退Comment zhb43: 由于，凭借Comment zhb44: 热处理炉Comment zhb45: 有望做某事；被期待做某事Comment zhb46: put through 完成容不迫地） in two or three. If a draw is half made and then stopped, it may be necessa
37、ry to anneal（退火） before proceeding, that is（换句话说）, if the piece is given time to work-harden. This may not be a scientific statement, but it is actually what seems to happen.火，也就是说工件是否有时间进行加工硬化。这不是一种科学的叙述方法，但确实是发生了。Internal stressesCold forming is done above the yield point in the work-hardening ran
38、ge, so internal stresses can be built up easily. Evidence of this is the springback（回弹） as the work leaves the forming operation and the warpage（翘曲，扭曲）in any（任何一种） subsequent heat treatment. Even a simple washer might, by virtue of(依靠) the internal stresses resulting from punching（冲压） and then flatt
39、ening（整平）, warp（弯曲） severely（严格地，激烈地） during heat treating. （virtue n.德行, 美德, 贞操, 优点, 功效, 效力, 英勇 believed in the virtue of prayer.相信祈祷的力量内应力在高于屈服点的加工硬化区进行冷加工很容易产生内应力。例如工件停止成型加工后会发生回弹，在随后的热处理后，工件会发生翘曲。即使是一个简单的垫圈，由于打孔和随后的平整加工中产生内应力，也会在热处理中呈现严重的翘曲。When doubt exists as to（关于） whether internal stresses w
40、ill cause warpage, a piece can be checked by heating it to about 1100 and then letting it cool. If there are internal stresses, the piece is likely to（可能） deform. Pieces that will warp severely while being heated have been seen, yet （然而）the heat-treater was expected to put them through and bring the
41、m out better than they were in the first place.当是否内应力会引起翘曲的怀疑存在时，可以通过将工件加工至 1100然后进行冷却来验证。如果存在内应力，工件会发生变形。经过热处理的工件像我们看到的那样会发生严重的翘曲，但是我们仍然希望工件被扔到热处理炉中被处理，这样好过它存在内应力的状态。WeldingThe maximum carbon content of plain carbon steel safe for welding without preheating or subsequent heat treatment is 0.3%. hig
42、her-carbon steel is welded every day, but only with proper preheating. There are two important factors: the amount of heats that is put in ; the rate at which it is removed.焊接不需要预热或之后进行热处理就能安全焊接的最高碳含量为 0.3。高碳钢通过合适的预热通常也可焊接。有两点值得注意：吸收热量的多少；移除速度。Welding at a slower rate puts in more heat and heats a l
43、arge volume of metal, so the cooling rate due to loss of heat to the base metal is decreased(减少). A preheat will do the same thing. For example, sae4150 steel, preheated to 600 or 800, can be welded readily（容易地） . When the flame or arc is taken away from the weld, the cooling rate is not 低速焊接带来了更多的热
44、量，这对金属的大量体积进行了加热，所以冷却速度降低。预热可以取得与之相当的效果。例如当 被预热至 或 时可以很好的焊接。由于周围金属的较高温度，当焊接弧移开焊接点后，冷却速度不会太快，产生了低速冷却的结果。即使是冷作硬化速度最快的金属也可以通过Comment zhb47: skrifais n. 牺牲；祭品；供奉All gains are made at some sacrifice.Most people might choose to divert the course of the train, and sacrifice only one child.Comment zhb48: sl
45、fComment zhb49: buti n. 拉削；拉孔；推削；扩孔 v. 钻孔；开口Comment zhb50: kraitirinn. （批评判断的）标准；准则；规范；准据Comment zhb51: adj. 相对的；有关系的；成比例的so great, owing to the higher temperature of the surrounding metal and slower cooling results. Even the most rapid air-hardening（风硬钢） steels are weldable if preheated and welded
46、at a slow rate.预热和慢速焊接达到良好的焊接效果。MachinabilityMachinability（机械加工性能） means several things. To production men it generally means being able to remove metal at the fastest rate, leave the best possible finish, and obtain the longest possible tool life. Machinability applies to（应用于） the tool-work（工具，零件）
47、combination.可加工性可加工性意味着几件事情。对于加工者来说，它意味着可以快速的移除金属，取得最好的加工效果，得到最长的刀具寿命。可加工性是刀具和零件的结合。It is not determined by hardness（硬度） alone, but by the toughness（韧性）, microstructure, chemical composition（成分）, and tendency（倾向） of a metal to harden under cold work. In the misleading expression “too hard to machine
48、”, the word “hard” is usually meant to be synonymous（同义的） with “difficult”. Many times a material is actually too soft to machine readily. Softness and toughness may cause the metal to tear（撕裂） and flow ahead of the cutting tool rather than cut cleanly. Metal that are inherently（天性地，固有地） soft and to
49、ugh are sometimes alloyed to improve their machinability at some sacrifice（牺牲） in ductility. Examples are use of lead（铅） in brass（黄铜） and of sulfur（硫磺） in steel.加工性不仅仅只由硬度决定，它还由韧性，微观结构，化学成分和在冷加工下金属所呈现的硬化特性所决定。在容易混淆的表示“难加工”中， “hard”与“difficult”同义。许多时候，因为材料过软而难于稳定加工。材料柔软性和韧性能够产生金属撕裂，使金属在完成切削前流动至刀具前端。柔软的金属往往会被加入合金从而牺牲它的延展性来提高加工性能。如黄铜中加入铅钢中加入硫磺。Machinability is a term used
