1、Climate, Economy & Land Policy: Effects on Pastoral Mobility Patterns in Mongolia气候、经济和土地政策：对蒙古国畜牧业移动方式的影响,Mara E. Fernndez-GimnezDept. of Forest, Rangeland, & Watershed Stewardship,Colorado State University玛瑞亚费南德斯， 森林、草原和水域系，科罗拉多州立大学B. Batbuyan & J. OyungerelCenter for Nomadic Pastoralism Studies,
2、Institute of Geography, Mongolian Academy of Sciences巴图彦和乌云格尔，蒙古国科学院地理研究所游牧研究中心,Overview概述,History 历史Strategies 策略：移动性和弹性Case study of changing mobility 案例研究：变化中的移动性Future directions 未来方向,History 历史,Mongol Empire 1206-1227成吉思汗,Tibetan Buddhism Introduced 15861586年引入藏传佛教,Manchu Period 1691-1911满族统治时期
3、,Collective Era 1960-1990集体经济,Fernandez-Gimenez. 1999. Sustaining the steppes. The Geographical Review,Privatization & Market Economy:1992-Present私有化和市场经济：1992现在,Weak or no regulation of movement 对移动没有管理或管理很弱New land law, but pasture provisions not widely implemented 新土地法，但草场供应却没有广泛实施Urban-rural & r
4、ural-urban migration 城市到农村和农村到城市的移民Declining mobility? 下降的移动性？,Initial Effects of Privatization (1992-1999)私有化的最初影响（19921999）, poverty & wealth differentiation 贫富差距 # of herders 牧民的井 terms of trade 贸易交换比率 social services 社会服务+ regulatory institutions 管理制度= movement 移动 + out-of-season & year-long gra
5、zing 反季和全年放牧 + trespassing & conflict 越界和冲突,Strategies for Sustainable Grazing Management in Mongolia蒙古国可持续放牧管理策略,Mobility 移动性Diversity 多样性Flexibility 弹性Reciprocity 互惠Grazing Reserves 放牧保留地,Mobility 移动性,Seasonal 季节性的Within season rotations 季节内轮牧Otor 走敖特Urban-rural 城市到农村Rural-urban 农村到城市,Diversity 多样
6、性,Species 畜种Habitat 生境Institutional 制度Livelihood 生计,Flexibility 弹性,Species 畜种Habitat 生境Institutional 制度 Livelihood 生计,Reciprocity 互惠,Pasture use norms 草场利用规则Labor sharing 劳动力共享Urban-rural relationships 城市与农村间的关系,Grazing Reserves 放牧保留地,Winter shelter and pasture inKhangai Mountain foothill area.杭盖山脚下
7、的冬棚和草场,Spring pasture in Gobi area.戈壁地区的春营盘,Case Study: Bayankhongor Aimag案例地：白音红格尔省,Ikh Bogd Mountain, Gobi Altai Range戈壁阿尔泰草原的博格德山,Study area,Study Sum 所研究的苏木,Bayan-Ovoo Sum 3rd Bag白音敖包苏木三队Khangai mountain-steppe杭盖高山草原 More yaks, few camels 耗牛多，骆驼少230 mm/year precipitation 降雨量-25o C ave. Jan temp
8、1月均温13o C ave. July temp 7月均温Jinst 2nd Sum Bag 京斯特苏木二队Gobi desert-steppe 戈壁荒漠草原More camels & goats, few cattle 骆驼、山羊多，牛少95 mm/year precipitation 降雨量-18o C ave. Jan temp 1月均温21o C ave. July temp 7月均温,Objectives 目标,Document changing pastoral land use patterns and rights to pasture 整理草场利用方式和草场权利变化Mobil
9、ity 移动性Grazing reserves 放牧保留地Campsite and pasture access, possession & “trespassing” 营盘和草场可进入性、拥有和侵入In relation to: 涉及以下三方面Household well-being 家庭福利Changes in land policy & its implementation 土地政策及其实施的变化Climate trends and weather events 气候变化趋势和天气变化偶发性事件,Methods 方法,Household survey 1995, 1999, 2006 1
10、995，1999和2006年的牧户调查Stratified random sample by wealth rank & district (sum) 根据富裕程度和地区分层随机抽样Interviews 访谈Participant observation 参与式观察,Climate & Policy Since 19991999年以来的气候和政策,1999-2002 extended drought and severe winter storms 1999到2002年连续干旱和严重的暴风雪75% of livestock in Jinst Sum killed 京斯特75 %的牲畜死亡200
11、2 Land Law allows for possession of winter and spring pastures by herder groups 2002年土地法允许牧民团体可以占用冬春营盘Donor & NGO projects to implement pasture co-management (TWB, ADB, UNDP, WCS, IDRC.) 捐赠者和NGO项目大力发展草场共管,Findings 研究结果,Herd Size & Composition 畜群规模和结构,骆驼马牛绵羊山羊,京斯特,白音敖包,Mobility: Rural-Urban Migration
12、移动性：城市到农村的移民,No. of herding households in Jinst declined 21% and in Bayan-Ovoo 14% since 1995. 自从1995年，放牧家庭数量在京斯特减少21 %，在白音敖包减少14 %Most moved to Aimag Center or Ulaanbaatar 多数牧民都搬到省中心或乌拉巴托,Bayankhongor Aimag Center白音洪格尔省中心,Mobility: Travel to Markets移动性：市场采购,Trips to Aimag Center到省中心的次数1995: 5 trips
13、 ave. 平均5次2005: 35 trips ave. 平均35次In 2006, most herders market directly in Aimag or UB, compared to 1995, when most sold to itinerant traders. 与1995年多数商品都是卖给流动商贩相比，2006年，多数的牧民市场直接在省里或乌兰巴托。,Pastoral Mobility: Number of Moves per Year畜牧业移动性：每年的移动次数,Seasonal Mobility: Average Distance Moved季节移动性：平均移动距
14、离,Pastoral Mobility: Otor Frequency畜牧业移动性：走敖特的频率,Percent of households that do otor has declined, but otor remains a key strategy.牧户走敖特的百分比已经下降了，但走敖特还是一个主要策略。,Access to Transportation交通的可获得性,41% of households own motorcycles 41 %的牧户有自己的摩托车20% own vehicles 20 %有汽车80-90% use vehicles to move 8090 %用汽车
15、来移动Use of camels dramatically declined 使用骆驼的牧户急剧下降,Use of Camels for Moves使用骆驼来移动的牧户百分比,Changing Grazing Patterns变化的放牧方式,Narin Am, July 1995纳林，1995年7月,Narin Am, late June 2006纳林，2006年6月底,In Bayan-Ovoos 3rd bag, formerly perennial springs and streams have dried up and several productive valleys are n
16、ow ungrazed due to lack of water, placing additional pressure on other pastures. 在白音敖包三队，以前四季不断的泉水和小溪都干了，几个高产的峡谷现在都因为缺水而不放牧了，因此对别的草场产生了额外的压力。,Grazing Reserves & Pasture Trespassing放牧保留地和草场侵入,Fewer households reserve pasture 越来越少的牧户保留草场Less out-of-season grazing 更少的反季节放牧Rates of pasture “trespassing”
17、 unchanged “侵入”草场的比率没有变Herders perceive more conflicts 牧民感觉到越来越多的冲突,Winter shelter and adjacent pasture in Jinst Sum.冬营盘棚圈和京斯特苏木邻近的草场,Rights to Camps & Pasture对营地和草场的权利, 80% of hh “possess” campsites 超过80 %以上的牧户拥有营盘Campsite trespass high in B-O Sum 白音敖包苏木营盘侵扰的事情很多7 hh claimed winter or spring pastur
18、e use contracts 7户牧民提出对冬营盘或春营盘使用合同,Winter camp in Bayan-Ovoo Sum.白音敖包苏木的冬营盘,Household Well-being & Livelihood Diversificatio 牧户福利和生计多样性,% of HH with 40% of hh in Jinst).畜群低于100羊单位的牧户比例上升（京斯特高于40 %） 75% of income from livestock75 %的收入来自于牲畜,Herders turned farmers in Jinst.京斯特的牧民变为农民,Increased access t
19、o information, transportation, electricity & credit for many households. 对信息、交通、电和贷款的可得性增大了。,Many herders do “artisanal” mining. 许多牧民在矿上打工,Household Well-being & Livelihood Diversification家庭福利和生计多样性,Main strategies observed: 观察到的主要策略Well-off, full-time herders 有钱的全职的牧民maintaining or increasing pasto
20、ral mobility 保持或增加放牧移动性Poorer herders 贫困牧民pastoral mobility declining 放牧移动性减少migrating to urban areas 向城市地区移民replacing or supplementing herding with mining or farming 在矿上打工或种地来替代或补充放牧收入Caveat 说明many well-off herders also migrate to city for other reasons 许多有钱牧民也因为其它原因而迁入城市,Conclusions 结论,Climate 气候,
21、Drives pastoral mobility & limits livestock populations推动牧业移动性和限制牲畜数量,Economy: Global and Local Markets经济：全球和地区市场,Cashmere Goats & Gold Mining山羊绒和金矿,Land Policy 土地政策,Little progress on land law implementation 土地法的执行几乎没有进展In B-O, increasing competition and conflict 在白音敖包出现上升的竞争和冲突In Jinst, low stocki
22、ng rates and recovering pastures create opportunity, but few incentives, for cooperation 在京斯特，低的载畜率和正在恢复的草场创造了合作的机会，但合作激励却很小。,Mobility, Reciprocity & Resilience of Pastoral Systems草场系统的移动性、互惠和弹性,Rural-urban migration: 农村到城市的移民Another dimension of flexibility and mobility? Or the end of nomadism? 是另一种弹性和移动？还是标志着游牧的结束？Role of social networks and reciprocity within the city and countryside and between city and country 社会关系网和互惠在城市和乡村内以及在两者间的作用Potential for collective action? 集体行动的潜力？Traditions of reciprocity 互惠传统Declining trust, increasing conflict 降低的信任，增加的冲突Experiments in comanagement 共管的实验,
