1、手术后硬膜外镇痛的效能与安全,第二军医大学附属长海医院麻醉科 邓 小 明,硬膜外镇痛对手术后疼痛效果如何?该技术是否安全?,第二军医大学附属长海医院麻醉科 邓小明,影响镇痛效能的有关因素 硬膜外镇痛的安全性,第二军医大学附属长海医院麻醉科 邓小明,药物选择 穿刺置管部位 切皮前和切皮后的硬膜外镇痛 给药方式,影响镇痛效能的有关因素,第二军医大学附属长海医院麻醉科 邓小明,硬膜外单独应用局麻药可引起病人感觉减退、难以接受的运动阻滞和低血压,而且镇痛失败率较高,因此从来没有成为术后常规镇痛的方法。,影响镇痛效能的有关因素,药物选择 局 麻 药,研究显示,胸部手术后的患者经胸段硬膜外导管给予布比卡因
2、,仍有30%的患者需用阿片类药物治疗才能获得充分的镇痛,并且有80%的患者出现显著低血压。 上腹部或下腹部手术后患者经硬膜外导管给予布比卡因或罗比卡因,也出现类似现象。 下腹部手术后经硬膜外导管给予布比卡因加上全身应用非甾体类抗炎药,而不用阿片类药物,则并不能产生有效的镇痛作用。,影响镇痛效能的有关因素,药物选择 局 麻 药,脊髓背角发现阿片受体以后,硬膜外应用阿片类药物是硬膜外镇痛的一次革命。 阿片类药物作用于脊髓背角突触前与突触后,影响伤害性剌激传入的调理,而不引起运动或交感神经阻滞。,影响镇痛效能的有关因素,药物选择 阿 片 类 药 物,与间断肌注阿片类药物相比,硬膜外应用阿片类药物可以
3、产生强效、持久的镇痛作用,而且副作用小,用药量较小。 与静脉PCA应用阿片类药物相比,尚缺少硬膜外阿片类药物可以产生更好镇痛质量的足够证据。 硬膜外应用芬太尼是该药作用于脊髓,还是药物的全身作用而产生镇痛作用尚有争议。,影响镇痛效能的有关因素,药物选择 阿 片 类 药 物,Chaurin等及Miguel等研究表明,硬膜外或静脉应用芬太尼或舒芬太尼对膝关节手术、腹部大手术的镇痛效果无显著差异。,影响镇痛效能的有关因素,药物选择 阿 片 类 药 物,ReferencesA Chauvin M,Hongnat JM,Mourgeon E,lebrault C,Bellenfant F,Alfonsi
4、 P.Equivalence of postoperative analgesia with patient-controlled intrravenous or epidural alfentanil.Anesth Analg 1993:76:1251-8B Miguel R,Barlow I,Morrell M,Scharf J,Sanusi D,Fu E.A prospective, randomized, double-blind comparisonof epidural and intravenous sufentanil infusions. Anesthesiology 199
5、4;81:346-52,硬膜外应用芬太尼对下腹部或胸部手术后患者的镇痛效果优于静脉PCA应用吗啡或芬太尼。,影响镇痛效能的有关因素,药物选择 阿 片 类 药 物,ReferencesA.Allaire PH,et al.A prospective randomized comparison of epidural infusion of fentanyl and intravenous administration of morphine by patient-conttrolled analgesia after radical retropubic prostatectomy.Mayo C
6、lin Proc 1992;67:1031-1041B.Cooper DW,et al.Extradural fentanyl for postoperative analgesia:predominant spinal or systemic action?Br J Anaesth 1995;74:184-7C.Cooper DW,et al.Patient-controlled analgesia:epidural fentanyl and I.v. morphine compared after caesarean section.Br J Anaesth 1999;82:366-370
7、D.Benzon HT,et al.A randomized double-blind comparison of epidural fentanyl infusion versus patient-controlled anagesia with morphine for postthoracotomy pain.Anesth Analg 1993;76:316-322,大量研究显示A,B,C,硬膜外或静脉给予芬太尼后血浆药物浓度常常高于最小有效血浆浓度(0.231.18, 平均0.3ngml-1),但是两组间并无显著差异。,影响镇痛效能的有关因素,药物选择 阿 片 类 药 物,Refere
8、ncesA.Baxter AD,et al. A comparison of lumbar epidural and intravenous fentanyl infusions for post-thoracotomy analgesia. Can J Anaesth 1994;41:184-91B.Loper KA,et al.Epidural and intravenus fentanyl infusions are clinically equivalent afte knee surgery.Anesth Analg 1990;70:72-5C.Sandler AN,et al.A
9、randomized,double=blind comparison of lumbar epidural and intravenous fentanyl infusions for postthoracotomy pain relief:analgesic,pharmacokinetic,and respiratory effects.Anesthesiology 1992;77:626-34,硬膜外阿片类药物与局麻药联合应用对胸外、骨科、上腹部和下腹部手术后的镇痛效果显著优于单独用药。然而,在阿片类药物与局麻药的选择上有较大的区别。如英国有40%的麻醉科用二乙酰吗啡、51%的麻醉科应用芬
10、太尼联合局麻药。,影响镇痛效能的有关因素,药物选择 阿片与局麻药联合给药,大量研究表明,阿片类药物与局麻药联合使用比其成份的单独使用对上腹部、整形和胸部手术有更好的镇痛作用。,影响镇痛效能的有关因素,药物选择 阿片与局麻药联合给药,ReferencesA.Dahl JB,et al.Differential analgesic effects of low-dose epidural morphine and morphine-bupicacaine at rest and during mobilization after major abdominal surgery. Anesth An
11、alg 1992;74:362-5B.Lowson SM et al.Epidural diamorphine infusions with and without 0.167% bupivacaine for postoperative analgesia.Eur J Anaesthesiol 1994;11:345-52C.Kampe S,et al.Postoperative analgesia with no motor block by continuous epidural infusion of ropivacaine 0.1% and sufentanil after tota
12、l hip replacement.Anesth Analg 1999;89:395-8D.Liu S,et al.Effects of epidural bupivacaine after thoracotomy. Reg Anesth 1995;20:303-10,有没有理想的联合用药的配方呢?,影响镇痛效能的有关因素,药物选择 阿片与局麻药联合给药,ReferencesA.Welchew EA.The optimum concentration for epidural fentanyl. A randomised,double-blind comparison with and wit
13、hout I:2000 adrenaline.Anaesthesia 1983;38:1037-41B.Scott DA,et al.A comparison of epidural ropivcaine infusion alone and in combination with 1,2,and 4ug/ml fentanyl for seventy-two h of postoperative analgesia after major abdominal surgery. Anesth Analg 1999;88:857-64,早期的许多研究利用硬膜外10ugml-1芬太尼作为对照A 。
14、随后将该剂量的芬太尼与0.125%左旋布比卡因联合应用,并与4ugml-1芬太尼进行比较,结果后者的浓度值得推荐B 。,经胸部硬膜外导管联合给予412 mgh-1的布比卡因与吗啡50ugml-1A、二乙酰吗啡80 ugml-1B、芬太尼10 ugml-1C、或苏芬太尼1 ugml-1D均可以产生有效的镇痛作用。加用阿片类药物可将布比卡因用量从2545 mgh-1显著降低到412 mgh-1E。,影响镇痛效能的有关因素,药物选择 阿片与局麻药联合给药,ReferencesA.Dddahl JB,et al.Differential analgesic effects of low-dose ep
15、idural morphine and morphine-bupivacaine at rest and during mobiliztaion after major abdominal surgery.Anesth Analg 1992;74:362-5B.Lowson SM,et al.Epidural diamorphine infusions with and without 0.167%bupivacaine for postoperative analgesia.Eur J Anaesthesiol 1994;11:345-52C.Paech MJ,et al.Postopera
16、tive epidural fentanyl infusion-is the addition of 0.1%bupivacaine of benefit?Anaesth Intens Care 1994;22:9-14D.Wiebalck A,et al.The effects of adding sufentanil to bupivacaine for postoperative patient-controlled epidural analgesia.Anesth Analg 1997;85:124-9E.Conacher ID,et al.Epidural analgesia fo
17、llowing thoracic surgery.A review of two yearss experience.Anaesthesia 1983;38:546-51,近来研究表明,联合应用布比卡因8mgh-1与芬太尼30ugh-1,或布比卡因13 mgh-1与芬太尼25ugh-1经硬膜外导管持续以9mlh-1的速度注射,对腹部大手术后患者均具有有效的镇痛作用A 。,影响镇痛效能的有关因素,药物选择 阿片与局麻药联合给药,References Curatolo M,Sschnider TW,Petersen-Felix S,et al.A direct search procedure t
18、o optimize combinations of epidural bupivacaine,fentanyl,and clonideine for postoperative analgesia.Anesthesiology 2000;92:325-37,新的局麻药有使用越来越多的趋势。罗比卡因具有运动阻滞较弱的优点,但是这个优点主要体现在术中用较高浓度镇痛时,而在术后镇痛应用较低浓度时显得并不突出。 研究显示,硬膜外联合应用芬太尼2ugml-1时,0.2%罗比卡因与0.125%布比卡因在运动阻滞和镇痛效果方面并无显著差异A。,影响镇痛效能的有关因素,药物选择 阿片与局麻药联合给药,Ref
19、erences Berti M,Fanelli G,Casati A,et al.Patient supplemented epidural analgesia sfter major abdominal surgery with bupivacaine/fentanyl or ropivacaine/fentanyl.Can J Anaesth 2000;47:27-32,Ballantyne 等A 单独应用阿片类药物镇痛的研究表明胸部硬膜外用药镇痛的效果并不优于腰部。,影响镇痛效能的有关因素,穿刺置管部位,Reference A.Ballantyne JC,Carr DB,deFerran
20、ti S,et al.The comparative effects of postoperative analgesic therapies on pulmonary outcome:cumulative meta-analyses of randomized,controlled trials.Anesth Analg 1998;86:598-612,诸多研究显示A,B,C,D,胸部硬膜外联合应用局麻药与阿片类药物可改善胸部手术后的镇痛效果,并且可在切口附近应用小剂量的亲脂性阿片类药物,可减少下肢的运动神经与交感神经阻滞。,影响镇痛效能的有关因素,穿刺置管部位,Reference A.Cr
21、ews JC,et al.A comparison of the analgesic efficacy of 0.25% levobupivacaine combined with 0.005% morphine,0.25% levobupivacaine alone,or 0.005%morphine alone for the management of postoperative pain in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery.Anesth Analg 1999;89:1504-9B.Dahl JB,et al.Differenti
22、al analgesic effects of low-dose epidural morphine and morphine-bupivacaine at rest and during mobilization after major abdominal surgery.Anesth Analg 1992;74:362-5C.Liu D,et al.Effects of epidural bupivacaine after thoracotomy.Reg Anesth 1995;20:303-10D.Lowson SM,et al.Epidural diamorphine infusion
23、s with and without 0.167% bupivacaine for postoperative analgesia.Eur J Anaesthesiol 1994;11:345-52,近年来人们还认识到,胸部硬膜外镇痛在控制交感神经阻滞作用方面具有重要意义,从而减轻交感神经对心血管和胃肠道的不良作用。,影响镇痛效能的有关因素,穿刺置管部位,Reference Rolf N,Van Aken H.Physiology and pathophysiology of thoracic sympathetic blocade.Thoracic Epidural Anaesthesia.
24、Baillieres Clin Anaesthesiol 1999;13:1-7,Woolf CJ等研究认为,为了达到超前镇痛,必须提供良好的镇痛以抑制中枢敏化,或使中枢敏化不会延至术后。,影响镇痛效能的有关因素,镇痛时机,Reference Woolf CJ,Chong M-S.Preemptive analgesia-treating postoperative pain by preventing the establishment of central sensitization.Anesth Analge 1993;77:362-79,研究显示,在切皮前或切皮后给予布比卡因与吗啡A或
25、单独给予布比卡因B,术后联合应用芬太尼与布比卡因的镇痛效果并无显著差异。只有少数研究认为超前镇痛具有明显的效果C。,影响镇痛效能的有关因素,镇痛时机,Reference A.Dahl JB,et al.Influence of timing on the effect of continuous extradural analgesia with bupivacaine and morphine afger major abdominal surgery.Br J Anaesth 1992;69:4-8B. Aguilar JL,et al.Pre-emptive analgesia foll
26、owing epidural 0.5% bupivacaine. In thoracotomy.Reg Anesth 1994;19:72C.Wu CT,et al.Pre-incisional epidural ketamine,morphine and bupivacaine combined with epidural and general anaesthesia provides pre-emptive analgesia for upper abdominal surgery.Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2000;44:63-8,术后硬膜外镇痛常常是持续推注以保
27、持稳定的镇痛水平,并最大程度地减少因间断推注而引起的心血管与呼吸系统不良作用。 Duncan等研究显示,与同时间内持续推注同等量的局麻药相比,下腹部手术后单独间断推注局麻药的镇痛效果较好,并且可最大程度地减轻感觉的减退,但是两组患者咳嗽时镇痛评分无差别A。 上腹部手术患者联合局麻药与阿片类药物宜选择单次推注或持续推注尚有待研究。,影响镇痛效能的有关因素,给药方式单次推注和持续推注,Reference Duncan LA,et al.Comparison of continuous and intermittent administration of extradural bupivacaine
28、 for analgesia after lower abdominal surgery. Br J Anaesth 1998;80:7-10,Komatsu HA等研究认为,局麻药与阿片类联合应用时背景剂量具有重要作用。该研究显示胃切除术患者应用背景剂量的PCEA在减轻咳嗽时疼痛方面优于单纯PCEA。,影响镇痛效能的有关因素,给药方式背 景 剂 量,Reference Komatsu H,et al.Comparison of patient-controlled epidural analgesia with and without background infusion after ga
29、strectomy.Anesth Analg 1998;87:907-10,除了联合应用局麻药与阿片类药物外,还可选择氯胺酮、咪唑安定、可乐定和肾上腺素等药物作为辅助应用以提高硬膜外镇痛效果。,影响镇痛效能的有关因素,给药方式辅 助 药 物,联合应用吗啡、布比卡因和肾上腺素时辅助小剂量氯胺酮(400ugml-1)可有效地改善胸部大手术后的镇痛效果A,但是由于缺乏氯胺酮神经毒性的研究,硬膜外辅助氯胺酮的应用并不广。胸部硬膜外辅助应用可乐定(1020 ugh-1)后可改善下腹部手术后的镇痛效果B,C,但是低血压的发生率明显增加,从而对监护要求提高,这样亦影响了可乐定的应用。亦有将咪唑安定、维拉帕米
30、与布比卡因联合应用,但是缺少关于该类药与局麻药阿片类药物联合应用的研究结果。,影响镇痛效能的有关因素,给药方式辅 助 药 物,Reference A.Chia Y-Y,et al.Adding ketamine in a multimodal patient-controlled epidural regimen reduces postoperative pain and analgesic consumption.Anesth Analg 1998;86:1245-9B.Mogensen T,et al.Epidural clonidine enhances postoperative a
31、nalgesia from a combined low-dose epidural bupivacaine and morphine regimen.Anesth Analg 1992;75:607-10C.Paech MJ,et al.Postoperative epidural infusion:a randomized,double-bline,dose-finding trial of clonidine in combination with bupivacaine and fentanyl.Anesth Analg 1997;84:1323-8,Breivik等A 研究显示,小剂
32、量肾上腺素(2ugml-1)与0.1%布比卡因(10mgh-1)芬太尼(20 ugh-1)联合应用可显著改善胸部或腹部在手术后咳嗽时疼痛的镇痛效果,最大地减轻感觉阻滞,并且可明显地降低血浆芬太尼浓度。该作者 B应用于6000多名患者的结果显示其安全性很好,并无肾上腺素引起血管收缩而造成的安全性问题。,影响镇痛效能的有关因素,给药方式辅 助 药 物,Reference A.Niemi G,Breiyik,et al.Adrenaline markedly improves thoracic epidural analgesia procuced by a low-dose infusion of
33、 bupivacaine,fentanyl and adrenaline after major surgery.Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1998;43:897-909B.Breivik H,Niemi G,et al.Safe and effective postoperative pain relief:introduction and continuous quality-improvement of comprehensive postoperative pain management programmes.Baillieres Clin Anaesthesio
34、l 1995;9:423-60,硬膜外镇痛的安全性,硬膜外镇痛引起的严重神经并发症发生率,硬膜外穿剌与置管相关的不良后果,硬膜外导管留置引起的不良后果,硬膜外药物应用相关的不良后果,硬膜外镇痛的安全性,严重神经并发症发生率,硬膜外镇痛引起的永久性神经损害罕见,所以难以估计其发生率。,Kane A分析了5万例接受硬膜外麻醉的患者,其中只有3例患者出现永久性下肢无力(0.006%)。,Aromaa等B对芬兰6年间接受硬膜外麻醉17万例患者的回顾性研究显示,有9例患者出现了严重并发症(0.005%),其中1例下肢瘫痪,1例永久性马尾综合征,1例腓神经麻痹,1例神经学缺陷,2例细菌性感染,2例与麻醉药
35、液相关的急性毒性反应,1例硬膜外阿片类药物过量。,Reference A.Kane RE.Neurologic deficits following epidural or spinal anesthesia.Anesth Analg 1981;60:150-61B.Aromaa U,Lahdensuu M,Cozanitis DA.Severe complications associated with epidural and spinal anaesthesias in Finland 1987-1993.A study based on patient insurance claims
36、.Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1997;41:445-52,硬膜外镇痛的安全性,严重神经并发症发生率,法国一项前瞻性的研究A显示,30413例硬膜外麻醉患者严重并发症的发生率为0.04%,其中3例心跳骤停,4例惊厥,6例神经系统损害。,Dahlgren和Tornebrandt报告9232例硬膜外麻醉患者永久性神经损害的发生率为0.03%B,约为KaneC和ArommaD报告的10倍。,Reference A.Auroy Y,et al.Serious complications related to regional anesthesia.Anesthesiology 19
37、97;87:479-86.B.Dahlgren N,et al.Neurological complications after anaesthesia.A follow-up of 18,000 spinal and epidural anaesthetics performed over three years.Acta Anaesthesilo Scand 1995;39:872-80C.Kane RE.Neurologic deficits following epidural or spinal anesthesia.Anesth Analg 1981;60:150-61D.Arom
38、aa U,Lahdensuu M,Cozanitis DA.Severe complications associated with epidural and spinal anaesthesias in Finland 1987-1993.A study based on patient insurance claims.Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1997;41:445-52,硬膜外镇痛的安全性,硬膜外穿剌与置管相关的不良后果,硬膜穿破 直接损伤 短暂性神经病变,硬膜外镇痛的安全性,硬膜外穿剌与置管相关的不良后果,硬膜穿破,Reference A. Giebler RM
39、,et al.Incidence of neurologic complications related to thoracic epidural catheterization.Anesthesiology 1997;86:55-63;B.Garcia-Sanchez MJ,et al.Chronic subdural hematoma secondary to an accidental dural puncture during lumbar epidural anesthesia.Rev Esp Anestesiol Reanim 1996;43:327-9C.Diemunsch P,
40、et al.Bilateral subdural hematoma following epidural anesthesia.Can J Anaesth 1998;45:328-31D.Ash Km,et al.Pneumocephalus following attempted epidural anaesthesia.Can J Anaesth 1991;38:772-4E.Lin HY,et al.Pneumocephalus and respiratory depression after accidental dural puncture during epidural analg
41、esia-a case report.Acta Anaesthesiol Sin 1997;35:119-23,硬膜穿破发生率为0.321.23%A,,可引起病人头痛。硬膜穿破后如果发生硬膜下血肿则可加重神经学损害,但是这种情况罕见B。利用推注生理盐水观察阻力消失感的发生率要低于空气C。应用空气来体会阻力消失感还可能引起气脑D,导致严重的并发症E。,硬膜外镇痛的安全性,硬膜外穿剌与置管相关的不良后果,硬膜穿破,Reference A.Jackson Ke,et al.Suspected venous air embolism during epidural anesthesia.Anesthe
42、siology 1991;74:190-1 B.Jennings Al,et al.Epidural complications and a case of malignant meningitis.Palliative Med 1997;11:483-6C.Furuya A,et al.Interpleural misplacement of an epidural catheter.J Clin Anesth 1998;10:425-6D.Zaugg M,et al.Accidental pleural puncture by a thoracic epidural catheter.An
43、aesthesia 1998;53:69-71,利用生理盐水体会阻力消失感还可减少硬膜穿破后因应用空气而引起气脑和其它并发症的发生率A,B,其中最为关注的是脊髓与神经根压迫和静脉空气栓塞。也有在硬膜外置管时意外穿破胸膜的报告C,D,如血胸。,硬膜外镇痛的安全性,硬膜外穿剌与置管相关的不良后果,直接损伤,Reference A.Brmage PR,et al.Paraplegia following intracord injuction during attempted epidural anesthesia under general anesthesia.Reg Anesth Pain M
44、ed 1998;23:104-7 B.Grady RE,et al.Neurologic complications after placement of cerebrospinal fluid drainage catheters and needles in anesthetized patients:implications for regional anesthesia.Mayo PerioperativeOutcomes Group.AnesthAnalg 1999;88:388-92,穿刺针或硬膜外导管对脊髓或外周神经的直接损伤极为罕见,但是时有临床报道。为避免神经损伤,硬膜外导管
45、常常在患者清醒时放置A。Grady 等B对530名接受神经外科手术患者在全麻后放置脑脊液引流针或引流管的研究显示,患者在术后短期内或术后一年内并无一例神经损伤,支持硬膜外导管在全麻以后放置。,硬膜外镇痛的安全性,硬膜外穿剌与置管相关的不良后果,短暂性神经病变,Reference A.Auroy Y,et al.Serious complications related to regional anesthesia:results of a prospective survey in France.Anesthesiology 1997;87:479-86 B.Tanaka K,et al.Ex
46、tensive application of epidural anesthesia and analgesia in a university hospital:incidence of complications related to technique.Reg Anesth 1993;18:34-8C.Xie R,et al.Survey of the use of epidural analgesia in China.Chin Med J 1991;104:510-5,短暂性神经病变在最后完全恢复者较为常见,但是相对而言仍不常发生。 Auroy等A在法国主持的一项前瞻性研究表明,30
47、413例硬膜外麻醉患者中有5例神经根病变(0.016%),其中50%以上者在3个月内完全恢复。与以前的结果类似:即Tanaka等 B报告17439例中短暂性神经病变4例(0.023%),中国Xie等 C报告1304214例中短暂性神经病变170例(0.013%) 。,硬膜外镇痛的安全性,硬膜外穿剌与置管相关的不良后果,短暂性神经病变,Reference A.Giebler RM,et al.Incidence of neurologic complications related to thoracic epidural catheterization.Anesthesiology 1997;
48、86:55-63 B.Peterson KL,et al.A report of two hundred twenty cases of regional anesthesia in pediatric cardiac surgery.Anesth Analg 2000;90:1014-9C.Laquinto Jm,et al.Increased neurologic complications associated with postoperative epidural analgesia after tibial fracture fixation.Am J Orthop 1997;26:604-8D.Horlocker TT,et al.Does postoperative epidural analgesia increase the risk of peroneal nerve palsy after total knee arthroplasty:Anesth Analg 1994;79:495-500,其它一些报道的发生率为0.240.56%A。新近Peterson等B报道小儿患者的发生率高达3%,但是例数较少。胫骨骨折固定术后等病人硬膜外镇痛时神经并发症较高C。但是,回顾性研究证实,在全膝关节置换术后腓神经麻痹与硬膜外镇痛无显著关联D。,