1、1Ballad(民谣) In more exact literary terminology, a ballad is a narrative poem consisting of quatrains of iambic tetrameter alternating with iambic trimeter. Common traits of the ballad are that(a) the beginning is often abrupt ,(b) the story is told through dialogue and action (c) the language is sim
2、ple or “folksy,” (d) the theme is often tragic-though comic ballads do exist, (e) the ballad contains a refrain repeated several times. The ballad became popular in England in the late 14th century and was adopted by many writers. One of the most important anthologies of ballads is F. J. Child s The
3、 English and Scottish Popular Ballads. 在更为精确的文学术语中，民谣指的是抑扬格四音步与抑扬格三音步诗行交替出现的四行叙事诗。民谣的共同特色包括：（a）诗歌的起首通常十分出其不意。 （b）故事通过对话和行为讲述。 （c）语言简单，民风十足。 （d）尽管存在喜剧民谣，但大多数民谣的主题具有悲剧意味。 （e）民谣通常包含重复多遍的叠句。民谣这种诗歌形式在 14 世纪晚期的英格兰十分盛行，从此以后许多作家对其进行模仿创作。历史上最为知名的民谣集之一为恰尔德收集出版的英格兰和苏格兰流行歌谣 。Epic(史诗) An epic is a long oral narr
4、ative poem that operates on a grand scale and deals with legendary or historical events of national or universal significance .Most epics deal with the exploits of a single individual and also interlace the main narrative with myths, legends, folk tales and past events; there is a composite effect,
5、the entire culture of a country cohering in the overall experience of the poem . Epic poems are not merely entertaining stories of legendary or historical heroes; they summarize and express the nature or ideals of an entire nation at a significant or crucial period of its history. 史诗是长篇口头叙事诗，内容广泛，通常
6、以重要传说或者重大历史事件为题材。大部分的史诗歌颂个人的英雄事迹，同时也在叙述中插入神话、传说、民间故事以及历史事件；一个民族的整体文化与全诗所讲的经历紧密联系，造成一种复合的效果。史诗不仅仅是愉悦人的传奇故事或者历史英雄事迹，它们总结以及表达了一个民族在其历史上一个重要或者关键时期的本质或者理想。Humanism(人文主义 ) Broadly, this term suggests any attitude which tends to exalt the human element or stress the importance of human interests, as oppose
7、d to the supernatural , divine elements -or as opposed to the grosser, animal elements.In a more specific sense, humanism suggests a devotion to those studies supposed to promote human culture most effectively-in particular, those dealing with the life,thought, language, and literature of ancient Gr
8、eece and Rome. It proclaimed that man is the most important noble creature in the world; the goal of life is to enjoy oneself in this present world instead of afterlife. According to the humanists ; both man and world are hindered by external checks from infinite improvement. Man could mould the wor
9、ld according to his desires, and attain happiness by removing all external checks by the exercise of reason. In literary history the most important use of the term is to designate the revival of classical culture which accompanied the Renaissance. 这个术语广义上是指一切提升人类因素或重视人类利益，反对超自然的、超人的因素或反对粗野的、动物的因素的态度
10、。更确切地来讲，人文主义意味着投身到最有效地促进人类文化的研究当中特别涉及到古希腊和罗马的生活、思想、语言和文学的研究。人文主义宣称人是世界上最高贵的动物；生活的目标就是要享受现世的生活而不是期望来世。人文主义学者认为，只有外部阻碍才能阻止人类和世界的无限进步，人类可以根据自己的欲望来改造世界，并且可以通过理智的锻炼驱除外部障碍来获得幸福。文学史中，用到这个术语的最重要时刻是指文艺复兴时期对古典文化的复兴。Renaissance(文艺复兴) The word “renaissance” means rebirth or revival. It is commonly applied to th
11、e movement or period in western civilization , which marks the transition from the 2medieval to the modern world . It sprang up first in Italy in the 14th century and gradually spread all over Europe, the date differing for different countries. The Renaissance indicates a revival of classical (Greek
12、 and Roman) arts and sciences after the dark ages of medieval obscurantism. The study and propagation of classical learning and art was carried on by the progressive thinkers of the humanists. They held their chief interest not in ecclesiastical knowledge, but in man, his environment and doings and
13、his brave fight for the emancipation of man from the tyranny of the church and religious dogmas. Because in the ancient Greek and Roman mythology were found the ideas of universal love, respect to human beings and approval of mans power, ability and knowledge. And at the same time worldly enjoyment
14、on the earth was affirmed. In short, man became the center of the world instead of God as upheld in the Middle Ages. The Renaissance Movement is a great revolution carried out in the fourteenth to the mid-seventeenth century Europe. It broke the chain and bondage of feudal and theological ties and b
15、rought human wisdom and capacity into full play. Renaissance 这个词意思是“复活”或“复兴” 。文艺复兴通常指的是西方文明中的一场运动或一个时期，标志着中世纪向现代社会的过渡。这场运动 14 世纪始发于意大利，后逐渐传遍欧洲各国，其具体时间因国而异。文艺复兴是指从中世纪蒙昧主义的黑暗中解脱出来后对古典（希腊和罗马）艺术和科学的复兴。对古典学问和艺术的研究和普及工作是由人文主义者中的进步思想家进行的。他们把主要的兴趣不是放在教会知识上，而是放在人类、人的生存环境与活动以及人类为了从教堂和宗教教条的桎梏中解放出来的斗争上。他们在古希腊和罗
16、马神话中找到了博爱的思想、对人类的尊重以及对人类的力量、能力和知识的承认，同时，也肯定了现世的享乐。简言之，世界的中心是人类自身，再也不是中世纪时期的上帝。文艺复兴运动是欧洲从十四世纪到十七世纪中期期间的一场伟大的运动。这场运动打破了封建枷锁和神学束缚，充分发挥了人类的智慧和能力。Ode(颂歌) Long, often elaborate formal lyric poem of varying line lengths dealing with a subject matter and treating it reverently. It aims at glorifying an indi
17、vidual, commemorating an event, or describing nature intellectually rather than emotionally. Conventionally, many odes are written or dedicated to a specifie subject. For instance,Ode to the West Wind is about the winds that bring change of season in England. Ode to the Nightingale is about the nigh
18、tingale that lures the poet temporarily away from his great misery. The earliest English odes include the Epithalamion and the Prothalamion,or marriage hymns by poet Edmund Spenser.指篇幅较长，结构较为复杂的抒情诗。诗行长度不一，通常以虔诚的语调讲述一个严肃崇高的主题。或咏物志事，或怀时抒情，或向某人致意。大多数的颂歌为方便起见描述的都是一个特定的主题。例如西风颂讲述的是给英格兰带来季节变化的西风。 夜莺颂描写的是带
19、领诗人暂时脱离苦海的夜莺。英国最早的抒情诗出现于 16 世纪，作品为著名诗人斯宾赛所著的婚后曲 、 婚前曲或婚礼赞美歌。Romanticism(浪漫主义) The term refers to the literary and artistic movements of the late 18th and early 19th century. Romanticism rejected the earlier philosophy of the Enlightenment, which stressed that logic and reason were the best response
20、humans had in the face of cruelty, stupidity, superstition, and barbarism. Instead ,the Romantics asserted that reliance upon emotion and natural passions provided a valid and powerful means of knowing and a reliable guide to ethics and living.The Romantic movement typically asserts the unique natur
21、e of the individual, the privileged status of imagination and fancy, the value of spontaneity over “artifice” and “convention”, the human need for emotional outlets, the rejection of civilized corruption, and a desire to return to natural primitivism and escape the spiritual destruction of urban lif
22、e Their writings are often set in rural, or Gothic settings and they show an obsessive concern with “innocent” characters-3children, young lovers, and animals. The major Romantic poets included William Blake, William Wordsworth, John Keats , Percy Bysshe Shelley, and Lord Gordon Byron.指 18 世纪末，19 世纪
23、初发生的文学和艺术运动。该运动是对早期启蒙主义哲学的反叛，后者强调在面对残忍、愚蠢、迷信以及野蛮时，逻辑和理性是人类应该做出的最佳反应。与此相对，浪漫主义强调应该依靠情绪以及自然抒发的激情作为生活和伦理问题的有效指导。浪漫主义运动特别强调个体的独一无二，想像、幻想的优先地位，自发性优于“技巧”和“惯例”所具有的价值，人类对于情感表达的自然需求，对于文明相伴的堕落腐化的抵制，以及远离摧毁人类灵魂的城市生活，重返原始自然的渴望。浪漫主义者的作品通常以乡村、田园以及哥特式城堡为背景，对于“天真单纯”的个体，诸如儿童、年轻的恋人以及动物特别关心。浪漫主义的代表诗人包括威廉布莱克、威廉华兹华斯、乔治戈登
24、拜伦、波西比希雪莱以及约翰济慈。 Aestheticism( 美学主义) The basic theory of the Aesthetic movement-“art for arts sake”-was set forth by a French poet, Theophile Gautier. The first Englishman who wrote about the theory of aestheticism was Walter Pater, the most important critical writer of the late 19th century. The ch
25、ief representative of the movement in England was Oscar Wilde,with his Picture of Dorian Gray. Aestheticism places art above life, and holds that life should imitate art, not art imitate life. According to the aesthetes, all artistic creation is absolutely subjective as opposed to objective. Art sho
26、uld be free from any influence of egoism. Only when art is for arts sake,can it be immortal They believed that art should be unconcerned with controversial issues, such as politics and morality, and that it should be restricted to contributing beauty in a highly polished style. This was one of the r
27、eactions against the materialism and commercialism of the Victorian industrial era, as well as a reaction against the Victorian convention of art for moralitys sake, or art for moneys sake. 美学运动的基本原则“为艺术而艺术”最初由法国诗人西奥费尔高缔尔提出。英国运用该美学理论的第一人是 19 世纪末最重要的文论作家沃尔特佩特。奥斯卡王尔德则因创作道林格雷的画像而成为英国该运动的重要代表人物。美学主义崇高艺术
28、高于生活，认为生活应模仿艺术，而不是艺术模仿生活。在美学主义者看来，所有的艺术创作都是绝对主观而非客观的产物，艺术不应受任何功利的影响，只有当艺术为艺术而创作之时，艺术才成为不朽之作。他们还认为艺术不应关注一些热点话题如政治和道德问题，艺术应着力于以华丽的风格张扬美。这是对维多利亚工业发展时期宣扬物质崇拜的一种回应，也是向艺术为道德或为金钱而服务的维多利亚传统的挑战。Stream of Consciousness(意识流) (psychol organized by William James) individual conscious experience regarded as conti
29、nuously moving forward in time in an uneven flow. In creative writing the interior monologue makes use of this to reveal character and comment on life.（由威廉詹姆士创立的心理学）个人的内心体验以不平衡的方式不断流动着。创作中，内心独白技巧利用这种意识的流动揭示人物心理，点评生活。 Critical Realism (批判现实主义) Critical realism is one of the literary genres that flour
30、ished mainly in the 19th century. It reveals the corrupting influence of the rule of cash upon human nature. Here lies the essentially democratic and humanistic character of critical realism. The English critical realists of the 19th century not only gave a satirical portrayal of the bourgeoisie and
31、 all the ruling classes, but also showed profound sympathy for the common people. In their best works, they used humor and satire to contrast the greed and hypocrisy of the upper classes with the honesty and good-heartedness of the obscure “simple people” of the lower classes. Humorous scenes 4set o
32、ff the actions of the positive characters, and the humor is often tinged with a lyricism which serves to stress the fine qualities of such characters. At the same time,bitter satire and grotesque is used to expose the seamy side of the bourgeois society. The critical realists, however, did not find
33、a way to eradicate the social evils they knew so well. They did not realize the necessity of changing the bourgeois society through conscious human effort. Their works do not point toward revolution but rather evolution or reformism. They often start with a powerful exposure of the ugliness of the b
34、ourgeois world in their works, but their novels usually have happy endings or an impotent compromise at the end. Here are the strength and weakness of critical realism. 批判现实主义是盛行于 19 世纪的文学流派之一，揭示了金钱控制一切对人性的恶劣影响，这正是 19 世纪批判现实主义民主和人文特点的根源。19 世纪的英国批判现实主义者不但讽刺性地描述了资产阶级和其他统治阶级，而且表现了对普通大众的深切同情。在他们最好的作品中，他
35、们利用幽默和讽刺的手法对比了上层阶级的贪婪和虚伪以及下层阶级普通大众的诚实和善良。幽默的场景伴随着正面人物的行动，但是这种幽默略带了柔情的意味，强调了这些人物好的一面。同时，也用辛辣的讽刺和怪诞的风格来揭露资产阶级社会丑恶的一面。但是，批判现实主义者们并没有找到办法消除他们所熟知的社会罪恶，他们没有意识到通过人们有意识的努力来改变资本主义社会的必要性。他们作品中的主要倾向不是革命，而是改革；在他们的作品中，他们通常是在开始时强有力地揭示了资本主义世界的丑恶，最后只是提供一个巧合的喜剧结尾或者以无力的妥协来结束。在这里我们同时看到了批判现实主义的优点和弱点。Gothic(哥特式) As a wo
36、rd Gothic on the one hand means “of or in a style of building common in Western Europe between the 12th century and 16th centuries,with pointed arches,tall pillars, and tall thin pointed windows often with colored glass in them”and on the other hand it means “of or like a style of writing popular in
37、 the late 18th century which produced stories set in lonely frightening places ”. It is now generally applied to literature dealing with the strange, mysterious, and supernatural designed to invoke suspense and terror in the readers. Gothic literature invariably exploits ghosts and monsters and sett
38、ings such as castles, dungeons, and graveyards, which imparts a suitably sinister and terrifying atmosphere. The term “Gothic ” derived from the frequent setting of the tales in the ruined, moss-covered castles of the Middle Ages, but it has been extended to any novel which exploits the possibilitie
39、s in a kind of frightening and mysterious situation in which the central story centers upon a beautiful maiden persecuted by an obsessed and haggard villain. The Gothic novels have opened up to later fictions the dark, irrational side of human naturethe savage egoism, the perverse impulses, and the
40、nightmarish terror that lie beneath the controlled and ordered surface of the conscious mind. Gothic novels have exerted significant influence on the literature of later generations and on every European literature. The Gothic novels have exerted great effect on the American literature,Hawthorn and
41、Allen Poe in particular. Furthermore, they also influenced the surrealism literature movement in the 20th century. 又称哥特风格，一方面通常指“十二至十六世纪西欧的建筑风格，以尖顶、高柱、彩色玻璃高窗为特色” ，另一方面，它又指“十八世纪末一种带有恐怖怪异色彩的文学” 。现在通常用于指文学中怪异、神秘和超自然的东西，旨在使读者产生悬念和恐怖。哥特文学总是使用鬼怪的形象以及诸如城堡、地牢和墓地等能够带来一种惊险和恐怖氛围的背景。 “哥特式”这个术语来源于故事经常发生的背景，如中世纪时
42、期荒废的、长满苔藓的城堡，但是现在它也可以指任何一部小说，小说在一种恐怖和神秘的环境中，其主题是围绕一个美丽的少女初一个孤注一掷的、野性的坏蛋所迫害来展开。哥特小说为后来的小说揭示了人类本性中隐密、没有理性5的一面：野蛮的利己主义，不正当的冲动和受约束的、有序的意识表面之下噩梦似的恐惧感。哥特小说对于后代的文学以及欧洲文学都产生了很大的影响。哥特小说也对后来的美国文学尤其是霍桑和爱伦坡产生了影响。另外，哥特小说还影响了 20 世纪的超现实主义文学运动。Byronic belonging to or derived from Lord Byron(1788-1824)or his works.
43、The Byronic hero is a character-type found in his celebrated narrative poem Childe Harolds Pilgrimage(1812-18),his verse drama Manfred(1817),and other works:he is a boldly defiant but bitterly self tormenting outcast,proudly contemptuous of social norms but suffering for some unnamed sin. Emily Bron
44、tes Heathcliff in Wuthering Heights(1847)is a later example. Comedy of Manners a kind of comedy representing the complex and sophisticated code of behaviour current in fashionable circles of society, where appearances count for more than true moral character. Its plot usually revolves around intrigu
45、es of lust and greed,the self-interested cynicism of the characters being masked by decorous pretence. Unlike satire, the comedy of manners tends to reward its cleverly unscrupulous characters rather than punish their immorality. lts humour relies chiefly upon elegant verbal wit and repartee. In Eng
46、land,the comedy of manners flourished as the dominant form of Restoration comedy in the works of Etheredge,Wycherley(notably The Country Wife,1675),and Congreve;it was revived in a more subdued form in the 1770s by Goldsmith and Sheridan,and later by Oscar Wilde. Modern examples of the comedy of man
47、ners include Noel Cowards Design for Living (1932)and Joe Ortons Loot (1965).Heroic couplet a rhymed pair of iambic pentameter lines:Let Observation with extensive ViewSurvey Mankind, from China to Peru (Johnson)Named from its use by Dryden and others in the heroic drama of the late 17th century,the
48、 heroic couplet had been established much earlier by Chaucer as a major English verse-form for narrative and other kinds of non-dramatic portry: it dominated English poetry of the 18th century,notably in the couplets of Pope,before declining in importance in the early 19th century.Soliloquy a dramat
49、ic speech uttered by one character speaking aloud while alone on the stage (or while under the impression of being alone).The soliloquist thus reveals his or her inner thoughts and feelings to the audience,either in supposed self-communion or in a consciously direct address. Soliloquies often appear in plays from the age of Shakespeare, notably in his Hamlet and Macbeth. A poem supposedly uttered by a solitary speaker,like Robert BrowningsSoliloquy of the Spanish Cloister(1842),may also be called a
