1、11L. Talmy 2000 Toward a Cognitive Semantics, 2 vols, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press.第一卷 Concept Structuring Systems 概念结构系统第一部分 语言中概念结构的基础第一章 语法与认知的关系一句话在听者头脑中引发一个“认知表征” （cognitive representation） ，即 CR，语言的两个分系统语法和词汇分别界定 CR 中的不同部分：语法界定结构（ structure） ，词汇界定内容（content） 。语法成分界定的各种概念是一个极其有限的集合，是
2、一个成分有限的系统，但它们构成的是语言的“基本概念结构系统” （Fundamental conceptual structuring system） ，即为语言这一认知系统提供一些有高度选择性的概念结构“图式”或“框架” （Schematic framework） 。语法因此决定语言这一认知系统的概念结构。语言这一认知系统的概念结构与其他认知系统（如视觉、推理）的概念系统有对应关系，这种对应关系也是我们要研究的对象。语法与词汇的定义与意义无关，是按形式标准定义开放类（词汇）：实词和复合词组封闭类（语法）：显性的和具体的，包括黏着的（-ed）和自由的（even ） ；隐性的和抽象的，包括“名、动
3、、主、宾、词序、构式” 。由语法界定的概念语法概念的性质（区别于词汇概念）1语义上受限制范畴有限：有数范畴，没有色范畴。范畴的成分有限：有单数、复数、双数、少量数，没有奇数偶数，dozen 数，没有 no, some, many, most, all 等自由形式表达的数范畴。2语法成分的所指具有指称的拓扑性（topological reference） ，非欧几里德性。拓扑性：图式保持不变 （橡皮泥变形后画在上面的几何图形保持不变）This speck is smaller than that speck.This planet is smaller than that planet.This
4、 和 that，比较句表达的大小远近关系，都与对象的绝对大小和距离的远近无关。图式：。 。 The ant crawled across my palm.The bus drove across the country.across 界定的概念图式：I swam across the lake. 与 lake 的大小形状无关（shape neutral, magnitude neutral）一张纸团成一团后仍然叫它“一张纸” ，这是量词的拓扑性。大部分语法成分所指的概念具有拓扑性或准拓扑性：点、线、在处、在里、域、边、分割、单数、复数、同、异、邻接、对应、分布方式22少量的语法成分不具有拓扑性
5、：材料、空间、时间、运动、介质、当前说及的实体语言形式的拓扑学与数学的拓扑学有同有异：同 in the thimble/volcano (大小 neutral)in the well/trench (形状 neutral)异 语言的 in 更抽象： closure neutral: in the bowl/balldiscontinuity neutral: in the birdcage/ball更具体：across 不能用于长和宽比例不对，分割的两部分大小严重不对称。That thatthisthis 说话人这个与那个之间的距离跟两个事物与说话人之间的距离不成比例，这种情形下只能说 The
6、 closer glass is water and the further glass is wine,不能说 This glass is water and that glass is wine.过去时标记可以指一分钟前，也可以指一万年前。实词的所指也可以具有拓扑性（previous 表示过去） ，但是虚词的所指一定具有拓扑性。虚词只有 concept-structuring 的功能，实词除这个功能外还有 content fill-in 的功能。Bulk neutral: The caterpillar crawled up along the filament/the flagpole/
7、the redwood tree.Token neutral: 指型不指例。有专用名词，但没有专用介词，如*Jesus walked Astation the hill named Calvary.（介词 Astation 指专门的路径）（动词和形容词也是 token neutral）substance neutral: a bubble passed through the water/milk/mercury.当发生语义矛盾时，实词向虚词让步，而不是相反。 （概念框架不轻易变动）She is somewhat pregnant.语义冲突：虚词 somewhat 表程度，实词 pregnan
8、t 不表程度。解决冲突的办法是实词让步，由无程度的“怀孕”义转向有程度义的“妊娠期” 。实词的这种变化叫“（语义）应变”（shift） 。3总藏量有限，具有普世性。可能是天生的，可能是从其他认知系统复制（copy）过来的。普世性有程度之别。 语法范畴系统语法范畴又叫图式范畴（schematic categories） ，它们构成一些图式系统（ Schematic systems） 。大致有五种图式系统有待说明：1Configuratioanal structure 时空型式2Perspective 视角3Distribution of attention 注意力的分布4Force dynami
9、cs 动力作用335Cognitive state 认知状态图式范畴和图式系统的的一些基本组织原则：1域与域之间的对应和投射（如空间域与时间域：他在厨房他在做饭）2一个范畴内的概念 A 由于与实词类发生交互作用会转变为概念 B（如在“域”domain这个范畴内，空间概念变为时间概念） ，也能使交互作用的实词的词义发生“语义应变”或调适（如 somewant 使 pregnant 的词义做相应变化） 。3叠套（nesting）图式范畴之一：domain 域（空间、时间等）空间域事物：个体 objects （离散）集合 mass （连续）时间域行动：动作 acts （离散） 盛碗里活动 activ
10、ity （连续） 盛鱼域与状态相关：状态：静态（stablicity）空间域动态（progression）时间域在“域”这个范畴内，由空间转变为时间，这种认知操作（cognitive operation）叫reification 或 reconceptualization“概念转化” 。如由一个动作转化为一个个体（两者都是有界/离散的）：John called me. John gave me a call.She bathed the child. She gave the child a bath.The child was bathed by her. The child got a b
11、ath from her.The child bathed (himself). The child had/took a bath.洗澡，洗个澡，来个热水澡由一个活动转化为一个集合（两者都是无界/连续的）：John helped me. John gave me some help.I was helped by John. I got some help from John.帮助，给一些帮助，得到一些帮助由事物转化为行动：Hail(stones) came in through the window. It hailed in through the window 天雨Ice is for
12、ming over the windshield. It is icing up over the windshield. 冰一冰I removed the pit from the cherry. I pitted the cherry. 坑人He has blood coming from his nose. He is bleeding from his nose. 流水/ 水流She ejected spit into the cuspidor. She spat into the cuspidor.Crowds of people went to the fair. People t
13、hronged to the fair.从类型学上看，有的语言是事物为主的语言（object-dominant），有的语言是行动为主的语言（action-dominant）。英语属于前者，名词变动词困难，动词变名词容易。北加州Atsugewi 语言属于后者，与动作相关的事物概念都由动词的前缀后缀来表达，有许多基本名词是由动词名化而来的，如名词 cnehwu“太阳/ 月亮” 是动词词根-hw u-“在天空中划出一道弧”名化而来。（前一类语言多，后一类语言少。动变名、名变动认知上的不对称。）44除了空间和时间两个域，还有其他域，如认同域（identificational space）或心理空间域，
14、区分与说话人的心理距离的远近：一个买有机食品的顾客来到新社区后向邻里打听：Where can you buy organic food around here?Where do they sell organic food around here?you/they 泛指人，与说话人认同用 you，不认同用 they一个卖有机食品的商人向同行打听：Where can you sell organic food around here?Where do they buy organic food around here?This/that 区分物理空间的远近，you/they 区分心理空间的远近。
15、时空型式 Configurational Structure，图式系统之一这个图式系统包括 7 个图式范畴1单复数 Plexity事物 动作单数 A bird flew in. He sighed (once). 叹了一口气复数 Birds flew in. He kept sighing. 连连叹气复数化的结果是无界化：事物由有界变为无界，动作也由有界变为无界。变为有界复数的一定是有标记形式：a flock of birds, a grove of trees, a pate of sighs有的词项有内在的复数性，如 furniture, timber, breathe，它们的单数化也是有
16、标记的：furniturea piece of furnitureshe breathed with full concentrationshe took a breath/breathed in with full concentration.(breathe in “吸入”有界)2有无界 State of boundedness事物 动作无界 *we flew over water in one hour. *We slept in eight hours.有界 we flew over a sea in one hour. She dressed in eight hours.有界化：w
17、ater a body of watersleep sleep for an hour无界化：shrubshrubberypanelpanelinga teartearscatthere is cat all over the driveway.milethere are miles of pencil in that stationary store.动作有界，受动作支配的事物相应地也按有界理解；动作无界，受动作支配的事物相应地也按无界理解。I ate popcorn for 10 minutes.动作 eat popcorn 无界，事物 popcorn 也理解为无界；I walked th
18、rough the tunnel in 10 minutes.动作 walked through the tunnel 有界，事物 the tunnel 也理解为有界。I walked along the shore for 10 minutes.55动作 walked along the shore 和事物 the shore 都为无界。界限重合原则 Boundary CoincidenceI walked along the shore for 10 minutes.I walked through the tunnel for 10minutes.3内部的连续和离散 State of D
19、ividednesswater 和 sleep 内部连续timber 和 breathe 内部离散（尽管外部看是无界的）离散化：water particles of water filled the vessel.连续化：leaves a mass of leaveswalk 内部连续性强keep stepping 内部离散性强强弱是一个斜坡：离散性由强到弱This tree and that tree and that tree are mature.Those tress are mature.That timber is mature.The shaman stepped once, s
20、tepped again, and stepped once more across the coals.The shaman continued stepping across the coals.The shaman walked across the coals.有无界的对立比离散连续的对立重要，语法形式主要体现有无界的对立。上述四域 domain, plexity, boundedness, dividedness 都与“量”有关，统称“量性”（quantitys disposition）小结：图（59 页）复数离散 连续无界 timber/breathe water/sleep有界
21、family/to molt sea/to empty(the bird molted.) (the tank emptied.)单数 tree/to sigh4. 维度 degree of extension点：斑点段（有界）：梯子线（无界）：河流she climbed up the fire ladder in five minutes. (段)moving along on the training course, she climbed the fire ladder at exactly midday.(点)she kept climbing higher and higher up
22、 the fire ladder.(线 )近看为段，远看为点，特近看为线。这是“远视/近视”distal perspective 作用的结果，好比拍照是推远和拉近镜头的效果。The cows all died in a month. （段）死光When the cows all died, we sold our farm. （点）一死就埋葬The cows kept dying (and dying) until they were all gone. （线）死呀死，全死光了。点和面：点：the box is 20 feet away from the wall.66I read the b
23、ook 20 years ago. 读过面：the box is 2 feet across. 宽二尺I read the book in 2 hours. 读完英语 on the campus（面），汉语 在校园里（域）在火车上（面），在车厢里（体）英国人将校园看作“面”（无界），中国人将校园看作“域”（有界）。5. 分布方式 pattern of distribution事物在空间的分布方式动作在时间轴上的分布方式示图（63 页）：状态 1状态 2单向不可复原：die, kill单向可复原：fall, drop一个来回（必复原）：flash, hit多个来回： breathe, beat稳
24、定状态：sleep, carry状态渐变：widen例子：he fell three times.*he died three times.He fell and then got up.*the beacon flashed and then went off.The river progressively widened*she progressively slept.awake 状态asleep 状态：单向（不复原）：Go to sleep 睡着了一个来回：go back to sleep 醒了又睡着了一个来回半：go to sleep again 睡着了醒了又睡着了二个来回：go ba
25、ck to sleep again 醒了又睡着，又醒了又睡着he died as we looked on. 点，单向不可复原he was (slowly) dying as she looked on. 线，渐变be +-ing 这一语法成分使实词 die 的词义让步和“应变”6. 单向轴性 axialitywell/sick 加程度副词 slightly 和 almost 时，其表现与空间词语 at the border/past the border 一样呈不对称：（状态变化也是空间位移）He is slightly sick / past the border. 有点儿不舒服/过界了*
26、He is slightly well / at the border. *有点儿舒服/到界了He is almost well / at the border. 差不多快好了/到界了？He is almost sick / past the border ?差不多快病了/过界了加 in five days 后意思也不样：77He got well / to the border in five days.五天恢复/ 到达边界He got sick / past the border in five days. 五天后病倒/过边界 一头有界一头无界的单向轴 is slightly sick /
27、 pass the border is almost well / at the border got well / to the border in five days got sick / past the border at dawn (after 5 days)“反例”：(after exposure to virus, he felt worse and worse and ) he was almost sick at one point / he finally got sick in three days.这又是实词 sick 的词义让步和“应变” ，上面的图式中，well 和
28、 at the border 是轴点（目标点） ，sick 和 past the border 是轴线，这是无标记情形，在有标记的情形 sick 变为目标点。7. 场景分割 partitioning英语 serve 表示的场景由四个部分组成：服务动作，服务主体，服务对象，服务内容the host served me some dessert from the kitchen. （主体和对象同现）I served myself some dessert from the kitchen. (主体和对象合一)I went and got some dessert from the kitchen.
29、（只出现主体）由双体变单体，这叫“内注” （introjection ） （二价动词 serve，当主体和对象合一时相当一个一价动词）one twin sang. 双胞胎的一个唱both twins sang together. 双胞胎两个一起唱the twins duelted. 双胞胎二重唱由单体变双体，这叫“外射” （extrajection） （一价动词变为二价动词）视角图式系统之二1观察（者）的位置 perspective location房内：The lunchroom door slowly opened and two men walked in. 走进来，施事（开门者）未出现
30、，看不见房外：Two men slowly opened the lunchroom door and walked in. 走进去，施事（开门者）出现，看得见英语规则：如果施事看得见，必须在句中出现。如果施事看不见，不能在句中出现。汉语同时用“来” “去”区分观察者位置。2观察距离（镜头拉远推近） perspective distance远距离：ladder 为点中距离：ladder 为段近距离：ladder 为线 （视域变窄，对象实体相对变大，其内部结构变细）3观察方式远距离静态整体扫描，视线静止：There are some houses in the valley.近距离动态逐个扫描，
31、视线移动：There is a house every now and then through the valley.All the soldiers in the circle differed greatly from each other.88Each soldier around the circle differed greatly from the last/next.The wells depth form a gradient that correlates with their locations on the road (不常用)The wells get deeper
32、the further down the road they are.(常用)I took an aspirin time after time during the last hour.(过去时)I have taken a number of aspirins in the last hour.（完成体）4观察方向和角度（注意焦点）顺序扫描1）直视前视 （直视为主句，前后视为从句）I shopped at the store before I went home.观察点-前 A 采购 B 回家 后汉语：我回家前采购。2）后视直视After I shopped at the store, I
33、 went home.观察点-A 采购 B 回家汉语：我采购后回家。 （同英语）3）直视 A直视 BI shopped at the store, and then I went home.观察点 观察点-A 采购 B 回家汉语：我先采购，然后回家。 （同英语）逆序扫描4）前视直视Before I went home, I shopped at the store.观察点99-A 采购 B 回家汉语：回家前我采购。 （同英语）5）直视后视I went home after I shopped at the store.观察点-A 采购 B 回家汉语：我采购后回家。6）直视 B直视 AI wen
34、t home, but first I shopped at the store.观察点 观察点-A 采购 B 回家汉语：我回家，但先采购。（同英语）说明：- 代表时间方向和 代表扫描顺序（先说后说）代表直视（主句，Figure）代表前视后视（从句，Ground）汉语总是由 Ground（从句，前后视）到 Figure（主句，直视）This festival dates from 1630. 从 1630 年起一直延续到现在 This festival dates back to 1630. 从现在一直追溯到 1630 年英语用介词区分扫描方向，汉语用动词和词序区分扫描方向。注意力的分布（di
35、stribution of attention）：图式系统之三1注意强度（strength of attention）：凸显Figure / Ground2注意方式（pattern of attention）聚焦部分（focus of attention ）：中央和边缘The clerk sold the vase to the customer. 聚焦于 clerkThe customer bought the vase from the clerk. 聚焦于 customer1010开视窗截取方式（window of attention）：截取不同的部分分层方式（levels of att
36、ention）：注意不同的层次1）离析/整合层次：the cluster of trees is small. 树丛很小 凸显整合层次 the cluserthe trees in the cluster are small. 那丛树很小 凸显离析层次 the trees（中心名词为 Figure）The bricks in the pyramid came crashing together /*in upon themselves.The pyramid of bricks came crashing in upon itself /*together.那堆砖一起倒了。*那砖堆一起倒了。f
37、our cooks 四个炊事员a foursome of cooks 一个炊事员四人组The two halves of the iceberg broke apart (*in two).The iceberg broke in two.2）统说/分举（level of exemplarity）Oysters have siphons. 统说 人人有自己的特点。An oyster has siphons.分举 各人有各人的特点。All oysters have siphons.全部Every oyster has siphons. 每个All the members raised their
38、 hands.Each member raised their hands.Many members raised their hands.Many a member raised his hands.Some members here and there raised their hands.A member here and there raised his hands.Members one after another raised their hands.One member after another raised his hands.Hardly any members raise
39、d their hands.Hardly a member raised his hands.No members raised their hands.No member (Not a member) raised his hands.On both sides of the room stood a table. 两边都有一张桌子。On either side of the room stood a table. 每边（都）有一张桌子。3）整体/部分（level of baseline within a hierarchy）There are freckles on the boys fa
40、ce. boyThe boys face has freckles on it. faceThe boy has freckles on his face. freckles4）具体/一般 （level of particularity）You have made a mistake here. 你把这个字改错了。Someone has made a mistake here. 谁把这个字改错了。有一条一般语言认知原则：未明确指出是 X，就留出了有其他所指的可能性（认知空间），从而否定所指是 X。（足量准则）3注意的投射（mapping of attention）：将一种注意方式从一种场景投射到另一种场景
