1、孙远的工具箱（传媒类） 传媒类1宣传技术(propaganda techniques)Todays AdvertisingPropaganda is not just the tool of totalitarian governments and dictators. Rather, propaganda is all around usin the form of commercials and advertisements. The author of this selection shows how Madison Avenue uses many of the techniques
2、typical of political propaganda to convince us that we need certain products and services. American adults and children alike, are being seduced. They are being brainwashed. And few of us protest. Why? Because the seducers and the brain washers are the advertisers we willingly invite into our homes.
3、 We are victims, contenteven eagerto be victimized. We read advertisers propaganda messages in newspapers and magazines; we watch their alluring images on the television. We absorb their messages and images into our subconscious. We all do iteven those of us who claim to see through advertisers tric
4、ks and therefore feel immune to advertisers charm. Advertisers lean heavily on propaganda to sell their products, whether the “products” are a brand of toothpaste, a candidate for office, or a particular political viewpoint.Propaganda is a systematic effort to influence peoples opinions, to win them
5、 over to a certain view or side. Propaganda is not necessarily concerned with what is true or false, good or bad. Propagandists simply want people to believe the messages being sent. Often, propagandists will use outright lies or more subtle deceptions to sway peoples opinions. In a propaganda war,
6、any tacit is considered fair.Indeed, the vast majority of us are targets in advertisers propaganda war. Every day, we are bombarded with slogans, print ads, commercials, packaging claims, billboards, trademarks, logos, and the designer brands-all forms of propaganda. One study reports that each of u
7、s, during an average day, is exposed to over five hundred advertising claims of various types. This saturation may even increase in the future since current trends include ads on movie screens, shopping carts, videocassettes, even public television. Advertisers use seven types of propaganda techniqu
8、es: 1)Name callingName calling is a propaganda tacit in which negatively charged names are hurled against the opposing side or competitor. By using such names, propagandists try to arouse the feeling of mistrust, fear, and hate in their audiences.Political advisement may label an opposing candidate
9、a “loser”, “fence-sitter”, or “warmonger”Products: An American manufacturer may refer, for instance, to a “foreign car” in its commercialnot to a “imported” one. The label of foreignness will have unpleasant connotations on many peoples mind.2)Glittering GeneralitiesUsing glittering generalities is
10、the opposite of name calling. In this case, advertisers surround their products with attractive-and slipperywords and phrases. They use vague terms that are difficult to define and that may have different meanings to different people: freedom, democratic, all-American, progressive, Christian, and ju
11、stice. Many such words have strong, affirmative overtones. This kind of language stirs positive feelings in people, feelings that may spill over to the product or idea being pitched. As with the name calling, the emotional response may overwhelm logic. Target audiences accept the product without thi
12、nking very much about what the glittering generalities meanor whether they even apply to the product. After all, how can anyone oppose “truth, justice, and the American way”?Politics: The ads for politicians and political causes often use glittering generalities because such “buzz words” can influen
13、ce votes. Election slogans include high-sounding but basically empty phrases.Products: Ads for consumer goods are also sprinkles with glittering generalities. Product names, for instance, are supposed to evoke good feelings.3)TransferIn a transfer, advertisers try to improve the image of a product b
14、y associating it with a symbol most people respect, like the American flag or Uncle Sam. The advertisers hope that the prestige attached to the symbol will carry over to the product.Product: Lincoln Insurance shows a profile of the president; Continental Insurance portrays a Revolutionary war minute
15、man.Corporations also use the transfer technique when they sponsor prestigious shows on radio and televisions. These shows function as symbols of dignity and class.In this way, corporations can reach an educated, influential audience and, perhaps, improve their public image by associating themselves
16、 with quality programming.Politics: Ads for political candidate often show either the Washington Monument, a Fourth of July parade, the stars and Stripes, a bald eagle soaring over mountains, or a white-steepled church on the village green. The national anthem or “America the Beautiful” may play sof
17、tly in the background.4）Testimonial （证明书）The testimonial is one of advertisers most-loved and most-used propaganda techniques. Similar to the transfer device, the testimonial capitalizes on the admiration people have for celebrity to make the product shine more brightlyeven though the celebrity is n
18、ot an expert on the product being sold.Print and television ads offer a nonstop parade of testimonials: heres Cher for Holiday Spas; heres basketball star Michael Jackson sings about Pepsi.5)Plain forksThe plain folks approach says, in effect, “Buy me or vote for me, Im just like you.” And how do th
19、ese folksy warmhearted (usually saccharine （糖制的，含糖的） ) scenes affect us? Theyre supposed to make us feel that AT we cant to be on the winning team. Or ads show a series of people proclaiming, “Im voting for the Senator. I dont know why anyone wouldnt.” Again, the audience feels under pressure to con
20、form.Why do these propaganda techniques work? Why do so many of us buy the products, viewpoints, and candidates urged on us by propaganda messages? They work because they appeal to our emotions, not to our minds. Often, in fact, they capitalize on our prejudices and biases. For example, if we are co
21、nvinced that environmentalists are radicals （激进分子）who want to destroy Americas record of industrial growth and progress, then we will applaud the candidate who refers to them as “treehuggers.” Clear thinking requires hard work: analyzing a claim, researching the facts, examining both sides of an iss
22、ue, using logic to see the flaws in an argument. Many of us would rather let the propagandists（宣传员） do our thinking for us.Because propaganda is so effective, it is important to detect it and understand how it is used. We may conclude, after close examination, that some propaganda sents a truthful w
23、orthwhile message. Some advertising, for instance, urges us not to drive drunk, to become volunteers, to contribute to charity. Even so, we must be aware that propaganda is being used. Otherwise, we will have consented to handing over to others our independence of thought and action.2. 电视瘾(TV addict
24、ion).Unlike drugs or alcohol, the television experience allows the participant to blot out （抹去，遮盖）the real world and enter into a pleasurable and passive mental state. The worries and anxieties of reality are as effectively deferred by becoming absorbed in a television program as by going on a “trip
25、” induced by drugs or alcohol.In a way a heavy viewers life is as imbalanced by his television “habit” as a drug addicts or an alcoholics. He is living in a holding pattern, as it were, passing up the activities that lead to growth or development or a sense of accomplishment. This is one reason peop
26、le talk about their television viewing so ruefully, so apologetically. They are aware that it is an unproductive experience, that most any other endeavor is more worthwhile by any human measure.The television habit distorts the sense of time. It renders other experiences vague and curiously unreal w
27、hile taking on a greater reality for itself. It weakens relationships by reducing and sometimes eliminating normal opportunities for talking, for communicating.The television viewer can never be sated with his television experiencesthey do not provide the true nourishment that satiation requiresand
28、thus he finds that he cannot stop watching.No.1 孙远的工具箱（思想类） 思想类1.critical thinkingCritical thinking is a path to intellectual adventure. Though there are dozens of possible approaches, the progress can be boiled down to concrete steps.Be willing to say “I dont know”Some of the most profound thinkers
29、 of our time have practiced the art of critical thinking by using two magic phrases: I dont know and I am not sure yet.Those are words many people do not like to hear. We live in times when people are criticized for changing their minds. Our society rewards quick answers and quotable “sound bites.”
30、Were under considerable pressure to utter the truth in 15 seconds or lessIn such a society, it is a courageous and unusual act to pause, to look, to examine, to be thoughtful to consider many points o view- and to not know. When a society embraces half-truths in a blind rush for certainty, commitmen
31、t to uncertainty can move us forward.Think againWhen we use the base-three number system, two plus two equals 11. A child learning to write numbers might insist that two and two makes 22. And a biologist might joke that two plus two adds up to a whole lot more than four when were talking about the r
32、eproductive life for rabbits.Define your termsPractice toleranceHaving opinions about issues is natural. When you stop having opinions, you are probably not breathing anymore. The problem comes when we hold opinions in a way that leads to defensiveness, put-downs, or put-offs.Going hand in hand with
33、 critical thinking is tolerance for attitudes that differs from yours. Consider that many of the ideas we currently acceptdemocracy, Christianity, voting rights for women, civil rights for people of color-were once considered the claims of “dangerous” and unpopular minorities. This historical perspe
34、ctive helps us accept a tenet of critical thinking: What seems outlandish today may become accepted a century, a decade, or even a year from now.Understand before criticizingStrictly speaking, none of us lives in the same world. Our habits, preferences, outlooks and values are as individual as our f
35、ingerprints. Each of them is shaped by our culture, our upbringing, our experience, and our choices. Speeches, books, articles, works for art, television programs, views expresses in conversation-all come from people who inhabit a different world than yours. Until weve lives in another persons world
36、 for a while, its ineffective to dismiss her point of view.Watch for hot spots(hot spot: anger or discomfort when conversation shift to certain topics, such as death penalty or abortion)To cool down your hot spots, seek out the whole world of ideas. Avoid intellectual ruts. Read magazines and books
37、that challenge the opinions you currently hold. If you consider yourself liberal, pick up the National Review. If you are a socialist, sample the Wall Street Journal. Do the same with radio and television programs. Make a point to talk with people who differ from you in education level, race, ethnic
38、 group, or political affiliation. And to hone your thinking skills, practice defending an idea you consider outrageous.Consider the sourceSeek out alternative viewsDozens of viewpoints exist on every critical issue how to reduce crime, end world hunger, prevent war, educate our children, and countle
39、ss others. In fact, few problems allow for any permanent solution. Each generation produces new answers, based on current conditions. Our research for answers is a conversation that spans centuries. On each question, many voices waiting to be heard. You can take advantage of this diversity by seekin
40、g out alternative viewpoints.Ask questionsStripped to this essence, critical thinking means asking and answering questions. If you want to practice this skill, get in the habit of asking powerful questionsLook for at least three answersUsing this approach can sustain honest inquiry, fuel creativity,
41、 and lead to conceptual breakthroughs.Be prepared: The world is complicated, and critical thinking is a complex business. Some of your answers may contradict each other. Resist the temptation to have all your ideas in a neat, orderly bundle.Be willing to change your mindWe should enter discussions w
42、ith an open mind. When talking to another person, be willing to walk away with a new point of view-even if its the one you brought to the table. After thinking thoroughly, we can adopt new viewpoints or hold our current viewpoints in a different way.Lay your cards on the tableScience and uncritical
43、thinking differ in many ways. Uncritical thinkers shield themselves from new information and ideas. In contrast, scientists constantly look for facts that contradict their theories. In fact, science never proves anything once and for all. Scientific theories are tentative and subject to change. Scie
44、ntists routinely practice critical thinking.Examine the problems from different points of viewSometimes new ideas are born when we view the world from a new angle. When early scientists watched the skies, they conclude that the sun revolved around the earth. Later, when we gained the mathematical to
45、ols to “stand” in another place, we could clearly see that the earth was revolving the sun. This change in position not only sparked new thinking, it permanently changes our picture of the universe.Write about itThoughts move randomly at blind speed. Writing slows that process down. Doing so allows
46、us to see all points of view on an issue more clearly and therefore thinking thoroughly. Writing is an unparalleled way to practice precise, accurate thinking.Construct a reasonable viewInstead, each point of view is one approach among many possible approaches. If you dont think that any viewpoint i
47、s complete, then it is up to you to combine the perspectives on the issue. In doing so, you choose an original viewpoint.2.The function of critical thinkingCritical thinking is a path to freedom from half-truths and deception. You have the right to question you see, hear, and read. Acquiring this ab
48、ility is one of the major goals of a liberal education.3.Critical Thinking as Thorough ThinkingBoth critical thinking and thorough thinking point to the same array of activities: sorting out conflicting claims, weighting the evidence for them, letting go of personal bias, and arriving at reasonable
49、views.We live in a society that seems to value quick answers and certainty. This is often at odds with effective thinking. Thorough thinking is the ability to examine and reexamine ideas that may seem obvious. Such thinking takes time and the willingness to say three subversive words: I dont know. Thorough thinking is also the willingness to change our point of view as we continue to examine a problem. This calls for courage and detachment. Just ask anyone who has given up a cherished point of view in the light for new evidence.Skilled studen
