1、Unit 4 Organization and InstitutionText APreparatory Work(1)a. Institutionalization: refers to the process of embedding some conception (for example a belief, norm, social role, particular value or mode of behavior) within an organization, social system, or society as a whole. The term may also be u
2、sed to refer to committing a particular individual or group to an institution, such as a mental or welfare institution.b. Solitary confinement: is a form of imprisonment in which an inmate is isolated from any human contact, often with the exception of members of prison staff. It is mostly employed
3、as a form of punishment beyond incarceration for a prisoner, usually for violations of prison regulations. However, it is also used as an additional measure of protection for vulnerable inmates. In the case prisoners at high risk of suicide, it can be used to prevent access to items that could allow
4、 the prisoner to self-harm.c. Parole: is the provisional release of a prisoner who agrees to certain conditions prior to the completion of the maximum sentence period. A specific type of parole is medical parole or compassionate release which is the release of prisoners on medical or humanitarian gr
5、ounds. Conditions of parole often include things such as obeying the law, refraining from drug and alcohol use, avoiding contact with the parolees victims, obtaining employment, and maintaining required contacts with a parole officer.d. Rehabilitation: is the re-integration into society of a convict
6、ed person and the main objective of modern penal policy, to counter habitual offending, also known as criminal recidivism. Alternatives to imprisonment also exist, such as community service, probation orders, and others entailing guidance and aftercare towards the offender.(2)Main publications: Infl
7、uencing Attitudes and Changing Behavior (2nd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison Wesley., 1977, Psychology (3rd Edition), Reading, MA: Addison Wesley Publishing Co., 1999, Psychology And Life, 17/e, Allyn the experiment found, unexpectedly, that a very high proportion of people were prepared to obey, albeit
8、unwillingly, even if apparently causing serious injury and distress.Small-world experiment (six degrees of separation)The small-world experiment comprised several experiments conducted by Stanley Milgram and other researchers examining the average path length for social networks of people in the Uni
9、ted States. The research was groundbreaking in that it suggested that human society is a small-world-type network characterized by short path-lengths. The experiments are often associated with the phrase “six degrees of separation”, although Milgram did not use this term himself.Not closely related
10、with the text since the experiment is about social networking between individuals in the United States.Critical ReadingI. Understanding the text1.Part Para(s) Main ideaI. Anecdote and introduction1-2 A case showing the necessity for prison reformII. Body 3-10 (the The experiment of a mock prison exp
11、eriment) with guards and prisoners were carried out and had to end earlier because of the frightening effect.III. Findings 11-13 (implication)Individual behavior is largely under the control of social forces and environmental contingencies rather than personality traits, character, willpower, or oth
12、er empirically un-validated constructs.IV. Conclusion 14 (effects of prison)The prison situation is guaranteed to generate severe pathological reactions in both guards and prisoners as to debase their humanity, and make it difficult for them to be part of a society outside of their prison. 2.(1) Zim
13、bardo uses the specific example of a prisoners situation to plead for prison reform and to justify the experiment he conducted about the bad effect of prison.(2) They conduct an experiment about the effects of prison on both guards and prisoners. (3) They want to understand what it means psychologic
14、ally to be a prisoner or a prison guard. (4) The 24 participants are selected randomly from volunteer students in Palo Alto city and they were randomly assigned roles of guards and prisoners in a simulated prison. (5) At Stanford University in 1971.(6) The experiment has to be ended earlier than pla
15、nned.(7) Because the effects of prison (abusing and being abused) on those being experimented are frightening. (8) The results show that people underestimate the power and pervasiveness of situational controls over behavior. (9) Individual behavior is largely under the control of social forces and e
16、nvironmental contingencies rather than personality traits, character, willpower, etc. Many people, perhaps the majority, can be made to do almost anything when put into psychologically compelling situations regardless of their morals, ethics, values, attitudes, beliefs, or personal convictions. II.
17、Evaluation and exploration(1)Hypothesis: the change of environment (including changed roles) affects ones behavior (students are put into a mock prison and assigned opposite roles which are all different from their normal environment and role of being a student or citizen)Cause: prison and assigned
18、new roles (changed environment)Effect: rational people with humanity were turned to abusers and victimsIndependent variable: the participants as human beings (the same human beings)(Stimulus: change of environment/roles)Dependent variable: behaviorThe experiment on the power and influence of roles a
19、ssigned to ordinary individualsis basically valid and convincing, and similar experiments also prove that most peoples behavior are influenced by the social environment, particularly the new roles they are assigned. Unfortunately, the experiment cannot be confirmed due to the ethical concern (the ha
20、rm caused by the experiment on the participants). And also, since the participants of a social experiment are humans, the result might not be exactly the same (unlike the natural science experiment which can be repeated with precision and same result). (2)Similarities: the two experiments are all ab
21、out the effect of assigned roles and social expectations on the behavior of the human beings. Differences: Zimbardos experiment focuses on the gradual change of behavior on those who are assigned new roles (prison effect) while Stanleys experiment focuses on authoritys influence on individuals in no
22、rmal circumstances (authority effect). (3) Power and its execution are closely related with the role assigned to the power-holder. The more important role he/she is given, the more likely he/she abuses it if there are no checks and balances from other institutions. It is very important to fight agai
23、nst corruption (in campaigns or through legal means), but its more important to set up mechanism to balance the role given to power-holders. (4) Zimbardos statement or conclusion is based on his only experiment about humans and their environment and cannot be repeated due to ethical reasons. It is r
24、easonable to argue that most people are influenced by the (change of) environment and adapt to it quickly, which means personal “freedom” is conditioned. However, there are exceptions, and this statement cannot explain the behavior of those heroes who stick to their principles under any circumstance
25、s and would rather die than surrender to enemy or power. (5) These exceptional examples are mostly heroes in extreme circumstances such as war or condition of life and death (Wen Tianxiang, Liu Hulan, John Brown etc.). They have to choose between life and death very quickly and sometimes they act fr
26、om instinct. There are other factors that result in these exceptional cases they all have very strong characters which have been fostered in hardship; they also have a very strong faith and are ready to die for the cause they pursue.(6) Besides the reason Zimbardo mentions (psychological factor of s
27、elf-image for the donors), there are at least two more reasons. One is religious reason most people in the West are Christians who believe in the teachings of Jesus Christ and feel a duty to help the poor (in the form of material, money, or time). The other is related to the affluence of the West wh
28、ere the majority of people become well-off enough to give away a fraction of their wealth or money to maintain social stability. (Therere also other reasons such as tax deduction in some countries to encourage donation.)(7) Simply put, the merit of “group think” is that it can mobilize a uniformed c
29、ollective force to realize some goal that individuals alone cannot hope to accomplish (through teamwork and national solidarity). The demerit of “group think” is that the group leaders view might be one-sided and flawed, and the wrong decision or policy based on it could easily lead to mistakes or e
30、ven disaster. Other demerits: this situation may easily result in the circumstance of strong leader/dictator vs. obedient/populist followers; and in many cases the “truth” is not necessary in the hands of the majority. (8) Clinical trials are experiments done in clinical research. Such prospective b
31、iomedical or behavioral research studies on human participants are designed to answer specific questions about biomedical or behavioral interventions, including new treatments and known interventions that warrant further study and comparison. Clinical trials generate data on safety and efficacy. The
32、y are conducted only after they have received health authority/ethics committee approval in the country where approval of the therapy is sought. These authorities are responsible for vetting the risk/benefit ratio of the trial - their approval does not mean that the therapy is safe or effective, onl
33、y that the trial may be conducted. Depending on product type and development stage, investigators initially enroll volunteers and/or patients into small pilot studies, and subsequently conduct progressively larger scale comparative studies. The key point here is: All participants are volunteers who
34、choose clinical trial when other means fail. Worldwide it is estimated that the number of vertebrate animals ranges from the tens of millions to more than 100 million used in animal experiment annually. In the EU, these species represent 93% of animals used in research. If the same was true in the U
35、S then the total number of animals used in research is estimated to be between 12 and 25 million. Most animals are euthanized after being used in an experiment. Supporters of the use of animals in experiments, such as the British Royal Society, argue that virtually every medical achievement in the 2
36、0th century relied on the use of animals in some way. The Institute for Laboratory Animal Research of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences has argued that animal research cannot be replaced by even sophisticated computer models, which are unable to deal with the extremely complex interactions betwe
37、en molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organisms, and the environment. Animal rights, and some animal welfare, organizations question the need for and legitimacy of animal testing, arguing that it is cruel and poorly regulated, that medical progress is actually held back by misleading animal models t
38、hat cannot reliably predict effects in humans, that some of the tests are outdated, that the costs outweigh the benefits, or that animals have the intrinsic right not to be used or harmed in experimentation.Language EnhancementI. Words and phrases1.(1)C he decided not to appeal to the higher court.
39、(4) The purpose of setting up the fund is to rehabilitate the landmine victims. (5) This university is one of the few local higher learning institutions that can confer doctorate degrees. (6) If you want to know more about the characteristics of the British, you have to further study the dimensions
40、of their history and culture. (7) This company has launched a new round of publicity campaign across the country, to attract those potential customers. (8) No country should interfere in any other countrys domestic affairs in the excuse of human rights.(9) In real life, only very few people can rema
41、in independent, not succumbing to power and authority.(10)Some people believe that in modern society we should adopt an attitude of understanding and tolerance towards deviant views and behaviors. 3.个人行为在很大程度上受到社会力量和环境变化的控制，而非取决于个人特质、性格、意志力或其他未经实验证实的因素。因此我们创造了一种虚幻的自由，相信我们自己内在有更多对情境的掌控能力，而实际不然。我们之所以低估了实际情境对我们无处不在的控制能力是因为：（a）它们常常是隐性的和微妙的，（b）我们常常能够避免陷入可能被情境控制的局面， （c）我们给那些在这种情形下有异于我们自我期许（而不是实际行为）的那些人的行为贴上“软弱” 和“不正常”的标签。4.(1) F (2) E (3) C (4) A
