1、外文翻译THEMODERNINDUSTRIALREVOLUTION,EXIT,ANDTHEFAILUREOFINTERNALCONTROLSYSTEMSMATERIALSOURCEHARVARDBUSINESSSCHOOLMJENSENHBSEDUAUTHORMICHAELCJENSENABSTRACTSINCE1973TECHNOLOGICAL,POLITICAL,REGULATORY,ANDECONOMICFORCESHAVEBEENCHANGINGTHEWORLDWIDEECONOMYINAFASHIONCOMPARABLETOTHECHANGESEXPERIENCEDDURINGTHE
2、NINETEENTHCENTURYINDUSTRIALREVOLUTIONASINTHENINETEENTHCENTURY,WEAREEXPERIENCINGDECLININGCOSTS,INCREAINGAVERAGEBUTDECREASINGMARGINALPRODUCTIVITYOFLABOR,REDUCEDGROWTHRATESOFLABORINCOME,EXCESSCAPACITY,ANDTHEREQUIREMENTFORDOWNSIZINGANDEXITTHELASTTWODECADESINDICATECORPORATEINTERNALCONTROLSYSTEMSHAVEFAILE
3、DTODEALEFFECTIVELYWITHTHESECHANGES,ESPECIALLYSLOWGROWTHANDTHEREQUIREMENTFOREXITTHENEXTSEVERALDECADESPOSEAMAJORCHALLENGEFORWESTERNFIRMSANDPOLITICALSYSTEMSASTHESEFORCESCONTINUETOWORKTHEIRWAYTHROUGHTHEWORLDWIDEECONOMYMCJENSEN,1993ORIGINALLYPUBLISHEDINTHEJOURNALOFFINANCE,JULY,1993REVISEDAPRIL1997TOUPDAT
4、EANDINCLUDENEWDATAINTABLESIIIVALSOPUBLISHEDINTHEORYOFTHEFIRM,MICHAELCJENSEN,FORTHCOMINGHARVARDUNIVERSITYPRESS,2000THISDOCUMENTISAVAILABLEONTHESOCIALSCIENCERESEARCHNETWORKSSRNELECTRONICLIBRARYATHTTP/PAPERSSSRNCOM/SOL3/PAPERTAFABSTRACT_ID93988VIIDIRECTEVIDENCEOFTHEFAILUREOFINTERNALCONTROLSYSTEMSTHEPRO
5、DUCTIVITYOFRDANDCAPITALEXPENDITURESTHECONTROLMARKET,CORPORATERESTRUCTURINGS,ANDFINANCIALDISTRESSPROVIDESUBSTANTIALEVIDENCEONTHEFAILINGSOFCORPORATEINTERNALCONTROLSYSTEMSMYPURPOSEINTHISSECTIONISTOPROVIDEANOTHERANDMOREDIRECTESTIMATEOFTHEEFFECTIVENESSOFINTERNALCONTROLSYSTEMSBYMEASURINGTHEPRODUCTIVITYOFC
6、ORPORATERDANDCAPITALEXPENDITURESTHERESULTSREAFFIRMTHATMANYCORPORATECONTROLSYSTEMSARENOTFUNCTIONINGWELLWHILEITISIMPOSSIBLETOGETANUNAMBIGUOUSMEASUREOFTHEPRODUCTIVITYOFRDANDCAPITALEXPENDITURES,BYUSINGAPERIODASLONGASADECADEWECANGETSOMEAPPROXIMATIONSWECANNOTSIMPLYMEASURETHEPERFORMANCEOFACORPORATIONBYTHEC
7、HANGEINITSMARKETVALUEOVERTIMEMOREPRECISELYTHERETURNSTOITSSHAREHOLDERSBECAUSETHISMEASUREDOESNOTTAKEACCOUNTOFTHEEFFICIENCYWITHWHICHTHEMANAGEMENTTEAMMANAGESINTERNALLYGENERATEDCASHFLOWSFOREXAMPLE,CONSIDERAFIRMTHATPROVIDESDIVIDENDSPLUSCAPITALGAINSTOITSSHAREHOLDERSOVERATENYEARPERIODTHATEQUALTHECOSTOFCAPIT
8、ALONTHEBEGINNINGOFPERIODSHAREVALUESUPPOSE,HOWEVER,THATMANAGEMENTSPENT30BILLIONOFINTERNALLYGENERATEDCASHFLOWONRDANDCAPITALEXPENDITURESTHATGENERATEDNORETURNSINTHISCASETHEFIRMSSHAREHOLDERSSUFFEREDANOPPORTUNITYLOSSEQUALTOTHEVALUETHATCOULDHAVEBEENCREATEDIFTHEFIRMHADPAIDTHEFUNDSOUTTOTHEMANDTHEYHADINVESTED
9、ITINEQUIVALENTLYRISKYPROJECTSTHEOPPORTUNITYCOSTOFRDANDCAPITALEXPENDITURESTHUSCANBETHOUGHTOFASTHERETURNSTHATWOULDHAVEBEENEARNEDBYANINVESTMENTINEQUIVALENTRISKASSETSOVERTHESAMETIMEPERIODWEDONTKNOWEXACTLYWHATTHATRISKIS,ORWHATTHEEXPECTEDRETURNSWOULDBE,BUTWECANMAKEARANGEOFASSUMPTIONSASIMPLEMEASUREOFPERFOR
10、MANCEWOULDBETHEDIFFERENCEBETWEENTHETOTALVALUEOFTHERDPLUSCAPITALANDACQUISITIONEXPENDITURESINVESTEDINABENCHMARKSTRATEGYANDTHETOTALVALUETHEFIRMACTUALLYCREATEDWITHITSINVESTMENTSTRATEGYTHEBENCHMARKSTRATEGYCANBETHOUGHTOFMICHAELCJENSEN341997ASTHEENDINGVALUEOFACOMPARABLERISKBANKACCOUNTWITHANEXPECTEDRETURNOF
11、10PERCENTINTOWHICHTHERDANDCAPITALEXPENDITURESINEXCESSOFDEPRECIATIONHEREAFTERREFERREDTOASNETCAPITALEXPENDITURESHADBEENDEPOSITEDINSTEADOFINVESTEDINREALPROJECTSFORSIMPLICITYICALLTHISTHEBENCHMARKSTRATEGYTHETECHNICALDETAILSOFTHEMODELAREGIVENINTHEAPPENDIXTHECALCULATIONOFTHEPERFORMANCEMEASURETAKESACCOUNTOF
12、ALLSTOCKSPLITS,STOCKDIVIDENDS,EQUITYISSUESANDREPURCHASES,DIVIDENDS,DEBTISSUESANDPAYMENTS,ANDINTERESTTHREEMEASURESOFTHEPRODUCTIVITYOFRDANDNETCAPITALEXPENDITURESMEASURE1CONSIDERANALTERNATIVESTRATEGYWHICHPAYSTHESAMEDIVIDENDSANDSTOCKREPURCHASESASTHEFIRMACTUALLYPAIDANDRAISESTHESAMEOUTSIDECAPITALANDPUTSTH
13、ERDANDCAPITALANDACQUISITIONEXPENDITURESINEXCESSOFDEPRECIATIONINMARKETABLESECURITIESOFTHESAMERISKASTHERDANDCAPITALEXPENDITURES,YIELDINGEXPECTEDRETURNSEQUALTOTHEIRCOSTOFCAPITAL,IUNDERTHEASSUMPTIONTHATTHEZEROINVESTMENTANDRDSTRATEGYYIELDSATERMINALVALUEOFTHEFIRMEQUALTOTHEENDINGDEBTPLUSTHEBEGINNINGVALUEOF
14、EQUITYTHATIS,INVESTMENTEQUALTODEPRECIATIONISSUFFICIENTTOMAINTAINTHEORIGINALEQUITYVALUEOFTHEFIRM,MEASURE1ISTHEDIFFERENCEBETWEENTHEACTUALENDINGTOTALVALUEOFTHEFIRMANDTHEVALUEOFTHEBENCHMARKTHEEXACTEQUATIONISGIVENINTHEAPPENDIXFORTHISMEASUREASWELLASTHENEXTTWOMEASURESOFPERFORMANCEUNLESSCAPITALANDRDEXPENDIT
15、URESARECOMPLETELYUNPRODUCTIVE,THISFIRSTCRUDEMEASUREOFTHEPRODUCTIVITYOFRDANDCAPITALEXPENDITURESWILLBEBIASEDDOWNWARDIDEFINETWOADDITIONALMEASURESTHATUSEDIFFERENTASSUMPTIONSABOUTTHEEFFECTOFTHEREDUCEDRDANDCAPITALEXPENDITURESONTHEENDINGVALUEOFTHEFIRMSEQUITYANDONTHEABILITYOFTHEFIRMTOMAKETHEINTERMEDIATECASH
16、DIVIDENDANDSTOCKREPURCHASEPAYOUTSTOSHAREHOLDERSIFRDISREQUIREDTOMAINTAINACOMPETITIVEMICHAELCJENSEN351997POSITIONINTHEINDUSTRY,THEENDINGVALUEOFTHEEQUITYINTHEBENCHMARKSTRATEGYISLIKELYTOBELESSTHANTHEINITIALVALUEOFEQUITYEVENTHOUGHNOMINALDEPRECIATIONOFTHECAPITALSTOCKISBEINGREPLACEDMOREOVER,WITHNORDANDMAIN
17、TENANCEONLYOFTHENOMINALVALUEOFTHECAPITALSTOCK,THEANNUALCASHFLOWSFROMOPERATIONSAREALSOLIKELYTOBELOWERTHANTHOSEACTUALLYREALIZEDBECAUSEORGANIZATIONALEFFICIENCYANDPRODUCTIMPROVEMENTWILLLAGCOMPETITORS,ANDNEWPRODUCTINTRODUCTIONWILLBELOWERTHEREFOREIUSETWOMORECONSERVATIVEMEASURESTHATWILLYIELDHIGHERESTIMATES
18、OFTHEPRODUCTIVITYOFTHESEEXPENDITURESMEASURE2THESECONDMEASUREASSUMESTHATREPLACEMENTOFDEPRECIATIONANDZEROEXPENDITURESONRDARESUFFICIENTTOMAINTAINTHEINTERMEDIATECASHFLOWSBUT,LIKEAONEHORSESHAY,THEFIRMARRIVESATTHEENDOFTHEPERIODSTILLGENERATINGCASHRETURNS,BUTTHENCOLLAPSESWITHNOADDITIONALCASHPAYMENTSTOEQUITY
19、HOLDERS,ANDEQUITYVALUEOFZEROASOFTHEHORIZONDATEMEASURE3TOALLOWFORTHEEFFECTSOFTHEREDUCEDINVESTMENTANDRDONINTERMEDIATECASHFLOWSMYTHIRDMEASUREASSUMESTHATALLINTERMEDIATECASHFLOWSAREREDUCEDINTHEBENCHMARKINVESTMENTSTRATEGYBYTHEAMOUNTPAIDOUTTOSHAREHOLDERSINTHEFORMOFDIVIDENDSANDNETSHAREREPURCHASESANDTHATTHEO
20、RIGINALVALUEOFTHEEQUITYISMAINTAINEDTHISMEASUREISLIKELYTOYIELDANUPWARDBIASEDESTIMATEOFTHEPRODUCTIVITYOFRDANDCAPITALEXPENDITURESTHEDATAANDRESULTSTHEDATAFORTHISANALYSISCONSISTOF1431FIRMSONCOMPUSTATFORWHICHDATAONRD,CAPITALEXPENDITURES,DEPRECIATION,DIVIDENDS,ANDMARKETVALUEWEREAVAILABLEFORTHEPERIODDECEMBE
21、R31,1979THROUGHDECEMBER31,1990THEESTIMATESOFTHEMICHAELCJENSEN361997PRODUCTIVITYOFRDARELIKELYTOBEUPWARDBIASEDBECAUSETHESELECTIONCRITERIAUSESONLYFIRMSTHATMANAGEDTOSURVIVETHROUGHTHEPERIODANDELIMINATESTHOSETHATFAILEDIHAVECALCULATEDRESULTSFORVARIOUSRATESOFINTERESTBUTREPORTONLYTHOSEUSINGA10PERCENTRATEOFRE
22、TURNTHISRATEISPROBABLYLOWERTHANTHECOSTOFCAPITALFORRDEXPENDITURESATTHEBEGINNINGOFTHEPERIODWHENINTERESTRATESWEREINTHEHIGHTEENS,ANDPROBABLYABOUTRIGHTORONTHEHIGHSIDEATTHEENDOFTHEPERIODWHENTHECOSTOFCAPITALWASPROBABLYONTHEORDEROF8PERCENTTO10PERCENTALOWAPPROXIMATIONOFTHECOSTOFCAPITALAPPROPRIATETORDANDCAPIT
23、ALEXPENDITURESWILLBIASTHEPERFORMANCEMEASURESUP,SOIAMREASONABLYCOMFORTABLEWITHTHESECONSERVATIVEASSUMPTIONSBECAUSETHEYAREINTERESTINGINTHEIROWNRIGHT,TABLEIIPRESENTSTHEDATAONANNUALRDANDCAPITALEXPENDITURESOFNINESELECTEDFORTUNE500CORPORATIONSANDTHETOTALVENTURECAPITALINDUSTRYFROMJANUARY1,1980THROUGHDECEMBE
24、R31,1990TABLEIIICONTAINSCALCULATIONSTHATPROVIDESOMEBENCHMARKSFOREVALUATINGTHEPRODUCTIVITYOFTHESEEXPENDITURESTOTALRDEXPENDITURESOVERTHEELEVENYEARPERIODRANGEFROM398BILLIONFORGENERALMOTORSTO53BILLIONFORMERCKTHEINDIVIDUALRDEXPENDITURESOFGMANDIBMWERESIGNIFICANTLYGREATERTHANTHE278BILLIONSPENTBYTHEENTIREUS
25、VENTURECAPITALINDUSTRYOVERTHEELEVENYEARPERIODBECAUSEVENTURECAPITALDATAINCLUDEBOTHTHERDCOMPONENTANDCAPITALEXPENDITURES,WEMUSTADDINCORPORATECAPITALEXPENDITURESTOGETAPROPERCOMPARISONTOTHEVENTUREINDUSTRYFIGURESTOTALCAPITALEXPENDITURESRANGEFROM912BILLIONFORATTAND82BILLIONFORGMTO36BILLIONFORMERCKCAPITALEX
26、PENDITURESNETOFDEPRECIATIONRANGEFROM255BILLIONFORIBMTO18BILLIONFORMERCKBOTHLBOASSOCIATIONSANDVENTURECAPITALFUNDS,OFWHICHKKRANDKLEINERPERKINSAREPROMINENTEXAMPLES,TENDTOBEORGANIZEDASLIMITEDPARTNERSHIPSINEFFECT,THEINSTITUTIONSWHICHCONTRIBUTETHEFUNDSTOTHESEORGANIZATIONSAREDELEGATINGTHETASKOFBEINGACTIVEI
27、NVESTORSTOTHEGENERALPARTNERSOFTHEORGANIZATIONSBOTHGOVERNANCESYSTEMSARECHARACTERIZEDBYCROSSSUBSIDIZINGONEDIVISIONWITHTHECASHFROMANOTHER,ONTHEPARTOFMANAGERSANDBOARDMEMBERS,CAPITALISTSWHOINTHEIRFUNDSDIRECTLYREPRESENTALARGEFRACTIONOFTHEEQUITYOWNERSOFEACHSUBSIDIARYCOMPANY,IRECTORSOFTHEOPERATINGCOMPANIEST
28、YPICALLYCONSISTINGOFNOMORETHANEIGHTPEOPLE,LBOASSOCIATIONSANDVENTUREFUNDSALSOSOLVEMANYOFTHEINFORMATIONPROBLEMSFACINGTYPICALBOARDSOFDIRECTORSFIRST,ASARESULTOFTHEDUEDILIGENCEPROCESSATTHETIMETHEDEALISDONE,BOTHTHEMANAGERSANDTHELBOANDVENTUREPARTNERSHAVEEXTENSIVEANDDETAILEDKNOWLEDGEOFVIRTUALLYALLASPECTSOFT
29、HEBUSINESSINADDITION,THESEBOARDSHAVEFREQUENTCONTACTWITHMANAGEMENT,OFTENWEEKLYOREVENDAILYDURINGTIMESOFDIFFICULTCHALLENGESTHISCONTACTANDINFORMATIONFLOWISFACILITATEDBYTHEFACTTHATLBOASSOCIATIONSANDVENTUREFUNDSBOTHHAVETHEIROWNSTAFFONEIMPLICATIONOFTHEFOREGOINGDISCUSSIONISTHATFINANCEHASFAILEDTOPROVIDEFIRMS
30、WITHANEFFECTIVEMECHANISMTOACHIEVEEFFICIENTCORPORATEINVESTMENTWHILEMODERNCAPITALBUDGETINGPROCEDURESAREIMPLEMENTEDBYVIRTUALLYALLLARGECORPORATIONS,ITAPPEARSTHATTHENETPRESENTVALUEORMOREGENERALLY,VALUEMAXIMIZINGRULEIMBEDDEDINTHESEPROCEDURESISFARFROMUNIVERSALLYFOLLOWEDBYOPERATINGMANAGERSINPARTICULAR,THEAC
31、CEPTANCEOFNEGATIVEVALUEPROJECTSTENDSTOBECOMMONINORGANIZATIONSWITHSUBSTANTIALAMOUNTSOFFREECASHFLOWCASHFLOWINEXCESSOFTHATREQUIREDTOFUNDALLVALUEINCREASINGINVESTMENTPROJECTSANDINPARTICULARINFIRMSANDINDUSTRIESWHEREDOWNSIZINGANDEXITAREREQUIREDTHEFINANCEPROFESSIONHASCONCENTRATEDONHOWCAPITALINVESTMENTDECISI
32、ONSSHOULDBEMADE,WITHLITTLESYSTEMATICSTUDYOFHOWTHEYACTUALLYAREMADEINPRACTICE51THISNARROWLYNORMATIVEVIEWOFINVESTMENTDECISIONSHASLEDTHEPROFESSIONTOIGNOREWHATHASBECOMEAMAJORWORLDWIDEEFFICIENCYPROBLEMTHATWILLBEWITHUSFORSEVERALDECADESTOCOMETHECLOSEINTERRELATIONSHIPSAMONGTHESEFACTORSHAVEDRAGGEDFINANCESCHOL
33、ARSINTOTHEANALYSISOFGOVERNANCEANDORGANIZATIONTHEORY55INADDITION,THEPERCEIVED“EXCESSESOFTHE1980S”HAVEGENERATEDMAJORREREGULATIONOFFINANCIALMARKETSINTHEUNITEDSTATES,AFFECTINGTHECONTROLMARKET,CREDITMARKETSESPECIALLYTHEBANKING,THRIFT,ANDINSURANCEINDUSTRIES,ANDMARKETMICROSTRUCTURE56THESECHANGESHAVEHIGHLIG
34、HTEDTHEIMPORTANCEOFTHEPOLITICALANDREGULATORYENVIRONMENTTOFINANCIAL,ORGANIZATIONAL,ANDGOVERNANCEPOLICIES,ANDGENERATEDANEWINTERESTINWHATICALLTHE“POLITICSOFFINANCE”译文现代工业革命出口以及内部控制制度的失败资料来源哈佛商学院,MJENSENHBSEDU作者MICHAELCJENSEN摘要在19世纪,是经验丰富的工业革命时期。自1973年以来技术的、政治的、监管的、与经济的力量改变着世界经济与时尚。在十九世纪,我们正在经历着减少成本,减少平
35、均生产率的成本,减少边际的生产率的劳动,减少劳动的成长率收入、产能过剩、裁员和要求并退出等问题。最后的二十年表明企业内部控制系统没有有效地处理这些变化,尤其是缓慢的经济增长,要求它退出。接下来的几十年为西方公司构成了巨大的挑战。政治系统,这些力量继续通过这种方法来影响世界经济。米三詹森,1993最初发表在金融杂志,(1993年7月)。1997年4月修订更新,其中包括在表IIIV族的新数据。还出版了企业理论,迈克尔延森,即将举行的哈佛大学出版社。直接证据,内部控制系统故障出现在研发和资本支出生产力控制市场,企业重组,以及提供财务危机等方面,大量证据证明出现在企业内部控制制度的缺陷上。我的目的,是
36、提供另一个更直接的内部效益估算,通过测量企业的研发和资本生产率来控制系统支出。结果重申,许多企业控制制度运作良好。虽然这是不可能得到一个明确的措施的研发和资本支出,生产率是一个十年发展的研究问题,我们作为一个长期的过程,可以得到一些类似的情况。我们不能简单地衡量一个性能公司通过在其市场价值随时间的变化(更精确地返回其股东),因为这是不采取措施的效率与该帐户管理团队管理内部产生的现金流量。例如,考虑一个公司提供资本收益加分红向股东超过十年的时期等于资本对股票的价值开始期间的费用。假设,管理花了内部产生的研发和资本现金流300万美元产生的支出没有回报。在这种情况下,公司的股东蒙受机会损失等于本来可
37、以创建该公司已支付的价值向他们和他们的资金投资于高风险的项目。这些研发和资本支出的机会成本,可以被认为是本来获得了相当于同一时间段风险资产的投资回报比。我们不知道到底是什么风险,也没有什么预期回报会是这样,但我们可以做一个假设的范围。一个简单的测量性能将是之间的研发,管理资本及总价值的差额收购支出基准战略投资,总价值公司实际创建其投资策略。基准的战略可以被认为是1997年,迈克尔詹森作为一个比较危险的银行帐户的结束值与预期回报为10(百分之到其中的研发和资本支出超过折旧)(以下简称被称为净资本支出)已存入,而不是在真正的投资项目。为了简单起见,我称此为基准策略。本文的技术细节模型,载于附录。该
38、绩效指标计算需要所有股票账户分割,股票股利,股权问题和回购,分红,债务问题和付款利息。三个研发和资本净支出生产力的措施。考虑替代战略,同样要支付股利和股票作为实际支付(并提出了同样的外部资金)和公司回购发放研发和资本及收购支出(折旧过量)可销售作为研发和资本支出的相同风险的证券,收益预期回报等于其资本成本值,在假设零投资和研发的假设,战略产生一个公司终值等于负债加开始的和结束的。公平价值(即投资等于折旧足以维持该公司原有资产价值),是衡量结束之间的实际差异,该公司的总价值和基准值。确切的方程是在附录这项措施,以及未来两年业绩的措施。除非资本支出是完全无益的,这在研发和资本支出的生产力粗浅的衡量
39、标准将有偏向下。我定义了两个不同的假设,对公司的能力在降低研发和资本支出效应对公司的结束值股使用有关的其他措施权,并使中间现金股利和股票向股东回购的支出。如果要维持迈克尔詹森在业界的地位,结束了股权在基准策略的价值,可能会比初始股本值低,即使名义贬值的资本股票被替换。此外,由于没有进行研发和维护,这只是名义资本存量的价值,从业务的年度现金流量也可能是比真正实现值低(因为竞争对手组织效率和产品改善将滞后,新产品介绍会更低)。因此,我使用两个比较保守的措施。第一,较高的估计这些支出的生产力。第二项措施,假定折旧更换为零,支出足以维持现金流量,但中间,像马谢伊,该公司在期末到达仍在产生现金回报,然后
40、崩溃,无需额外支付现金和股票价值。为了让投资的减少,现金及中间过程研发的影响,我的第三项措施,流量假定,即所有的中间现金流量在减少,通过发放的形式向股东的金额基准的投资策略,股息、股票回购和净值,该资产原值维持。这项措施可能会产生一个向上的生产力,有偏估计研发和资本支出。数据和结果分析,这种分析的数据包括公司1431年数据研发,分别提供资本支出,折旧,股息和市场价值。对于通过1990年12月31日的估计。1997年36迈克尔詹森研发生产力可能会向上偏,因为使用的选择标准,即通过设法生存期,并消除那些失败的商号。我有不同的兴趣,但报告的税率计算结果仅使用百分之十回报率。在期初支出,当利率在高十几
41、倍这个速度时,可能比资金用于研发成本低,大概权利会偏高,在这一时期结束时,资本成本大概是在百分之八至百分之十的顺序。低的成本逼近资本适当的研发和资本支出将偏置性能的措施,所以我有理由相信这些保守的假设。因为他们存在自己独特的特色,表二列出数据每年的研发和资本支出的九个选定财富500强企业和从创业1980年1月1日至12月31资本行业,1990年。表三包含了生产力的评估,提供一些基准计算支出。在11年的周期范围以398亿美元为研发总支出。通用汽车530亿元。个别研发支出和通用汽车IBM公司均高于2780亿元,由整个美国在资本产业在11年时间的风险最大花费。因为风险资本数据包括组件的研发和资本支出
42、,我们必须补充企业资本支出,以取得正确的相比,风险投资行业的数字。总资本支出范围从912万美元到820亿美元。资本性支出扣除折旧的范围从255亿美元。两个LBO协会和风险投资基金,其中珀金斯是突出的例子,往往是有限责任合伙。在效果上,贡献的机构的资金将这些基层组织委派任务。思想活跃的投资者对一般合伙人组织起来。两个治理系统有如下特征有限合伙协议的顶级水准,禁止总部从一边资金挪用到另一边资金。高股权部分管理和董事会成员董事会成员,大多是LBO协会合作伙伴或创业资本家,他们的资金直接代表一个大框架的股权,是每一下属公司的所有者。小董事会的主要经营公司不超过八人。首席执行官通常是唯一的内线。面对典型
43、的董事会,协会和创业基金LBO的信息也能解决许多问题。首先,由于审查程序的时间,交易完成,两企业的管理者要考虑风险的知识,这些知识分布在各方面的业务之中。此外,这些过程,也就是每周或即使每天都要与管理层经过多次的困难挑战。这种联系和信息流程由各行业的实际决定。LBO协会和创业基金都有他们自己的员工。上述讨论的一个重要问题是,财政未能提供公司拥有一个有效的机制,以达到有效的企业投资。而现代程序执行的几乎所有大公司,它显示了净现值或更一般的意义上规则,制定本办法远非普遍,紧随其后的是运营经理。特别需要指出的是,接受规则往往是常见的项目组织中有大量的自由现金流现金流量超过要求所有增值投资项目基金和特别是在公司和行业组织精简与出口的地方是必要的。金融行业已经把力量集中在如何资本投资决策,应该如何与小系统研究它们实际上是在狭隘的观点上实践这个规范的投资决策,导致行业忽略的是世界范围内的效率已经成为主要的问题,将是我们几十年将面临的。这些因素之间有着密切的相互关系,曾纳入分析金融学者的治理和组织。此外,所知道的规定,20世纪80年代产生的主要的金融市场是美国,影响了控制市场,信贷市场(特别是银行业、节俭和保险行业),并突出了市场规则这些变化的重要性,政治和监管环境治理、组织、金融政策,并产生了新的我所谓的“政治财政部”。