1、大学英语教学中的文化导入研究CULTURETEACHINGINCOLLEGEENGLISHPROGRAM研究生姓名学号导师姓名系所外国语学院英语系专业英语语言文学研究方向入学时间毕业时间摘要语言是文化的载体和表现形式。语言离不开文化，文化又存在于语言之中。英语教学应当包括英语文化教学。如果在英语教学中只重视语言知识的教育而忽视文化教育，其结果使培养出来的学生不可能真正掌握英语知识，跨文化交际能力也无从谈起。文化教育是实现运用语言进行交际的关键，语言的得体性离不开社会文化知识。因此要加强英语教师对文化教育重要性的认识，从而培养学生具备较强的跨文化交际能力。本论文内容是关于在外语教学课堂中文化教学
2、的作用以及如何导入的问题。本论文将对于为什么以及如何进行文化教学做一些思考。文中将指出外语教学并非等同于教授语法结构或学习新词汇与短语，也需要导入一些文化因素，这些文化因素与语言本身是连在一起的。此外，本文也将阐述一些现在使用的将文化导入外语课堂的技巧与方法。文章之主旨在于说明有效的交流不只是需要语言流利，除了增强语言与交流能力外，掌握文化的能力也可以使不同文化体的人得到相互尊重与情感共振。本论文共包括五个部分。第一部分为论文简介。第二部分是对文化的概念以及其与语言及交流的关系的深入探讨。文中将指出语言教学应该基于文化学习。语言是文化的一个重要组成部分。它是文化传输的主要媒介。没有语言，文化也
3、难以存在。儿童在学习他们母语时也就在学习他们的文化。学习外语也涉及到不同程度地学习外来文化。另一方面，语言也受到文化的影响。语言反应文化。文化差异是跨文化交流中导致误解，产生不悦甚至产生矛盾的重要原因。文化教育的观念对于外语老师来说并不是新概念。许多人认为，文化教学只是上几节有关英语国家假日，服饰，民歌，饮食等的课。这些课程当然有用，但是因为这些课程往往没有一个更广阔的语境来支撑，所以他们对学生感悟英语语言与社会等方面作用并不大，特别是学生学习语言后需要在英语国家生活工作的。举例而言，问好，再见，称呼形式，感谢，要求，给出或接受称赞之类的日常会话并不难，但是实际学习中并不只是要求能够说出正确语
4、法的句子，而是需要知道在什么情形下对谁说什么样的话是适当的，也需要理解语言中不同形式与用法所表现出来的信仰与价值观。第三部分将展示历史上学者们对文化教育的看法及做法。直到20世纪80年代学者才开始探究文化的意义以及其在成功外语教学中的重要作用。例如，LITTLEWOOD曾提倡过学习文化的作用，但是他还是把语言熟练度作为外语交流能力的主要标准。基于交流不只是信息的交换也负载着思想与价值观的观念，MELDE1987提出外语教学应着重培养对目标语言社会生活的“批判性意识”。此观念与FAIRCLOUGH在1989与1995年提出的批判理论一致（BYRAM,MORGAN等人在1994年也提出过）。更具体
5、地说，只有当学生能够理解外语语言中的视角，并有机会通过抛弃自身思维方式与对方相互理解来反映其自身视角时，才会吸收外语文化中道德层次，评价方式等，这些都不是能够简单地通过语言形式的学习而获得的（BYRAM,MORGAN等人1994年提出）。也就是说，学生需要溶入到外国人的角色中，这样他才能获得对外语文化中价值与意义观念的理解。BAUMGRATZGANGL1990指出整合外来文化与自身文化的中的价值与意义观念可以使学生改变视角或“认识到其认知缺陷”，有助于不同文化交流中的相互理解与支持。KRAMSCH1993将外语课堂比成“第三文化区”，也就是学生们创造并使用的文化中立区，学生可以在此中立区中探究
6、并表达中国与外国的文化与语言。第四部分集中阐述有关大学英语教学中的文化教学的具体细节。首先我们会介绍文化教学的目标。文中将列出七个目标帮助学生理解所有的人的行为都是在一定的文化环境中的；帮助学生理解年龄，性别，社会角色与出生地都会影响人说话与行为的方式；帮助学生建立其对外语文化中正常情形下的习惯行为的意识；帮助学生增强其对外语中词与短语的潜在文化含义的意识；帮助学生增强外语文化的评价与提炼能力；帮助学生发展对外语文化中信息进行定位与组织的必要技巧；激发学生对外语文化知识的兴趣并鼓励其去了解外国人。文化教学的根本日的在于提高学生的文化意识并激发其对英语文化及自身文化的兴趣，帮助学生对不同文化进行
7、对比。然后我们将讲述文化教学的内容与原则。最后，我们将讨论一些具体的文化导入的方法，例如使用地道的学习材料，英语谚语，游戏，制作英语文化橱窗等。文化的导入不应带有过强的个人偏见，可以将英语文化与中国自身文化溶合。这样才能够较好地掌握外语与外语文化。最后一部分为结论。关键词文化，文化教学，文化意识，文化与语言ABSTRACTLANGUAGEISTHEVEHICLEANDEXPRESSIONOFCULTUREITISNEVERSEPARATEDFROMCULTUREANDCULTUREISEMBEDDEDWITHINLANGUAGETHEREFORE,ENGLISHTEACHINGSHOULDIN
8、CLUDEENGLISHCULTURETEACHINGIFTHEENGLISHTEACHINGISCOMPRISEDONLYOFLANGUAGEKNOWLEDGEANDHASNOCULTUREEDUCATION,THESTUDENTTHEREOFWILLNOTBEABLETOTRULYMASTERTHEENGLISHLANGUAGE,THEREFORENOTABLETODOEFFECTIVECROSSBORDERCOMMUNICATIONCULTUREEDUCATIONISTHEKEYTOTHEEFFECTIVEFOREIGNLANGUAGECOMMUNICATIONTOEXPRESSAFOR
9、EIGNLANGUAGEDECENTLYWILLREQUIRETHEKNOWLEDGEOFSOCIALCULTUREOFTHETARGETTHEREFOREITISESSENTIALFORENGLISHTEACHERSTOENHANCETHEKNOWLEDGEOFTHEIMPORTANCEOFCULTUREEDUCATION,THEREFORETRAININGTHESTUDENTSTOOBTAINGOODCROSSBORDERCOMMUNICATIONABILITIESTHETHESISISCONCERNEDWITHTHECONTRIBUTIONANDINCORPORATIONOFTHETEA
10、CHINGOFCULTUREINTOTHEFOREIGNLANGUAGECLASSROOMMORESPECIFICALLY,SOMECONSIDERATIONWILLBEGIVENTOTHEWHYANDHOWOFTEACHINGCULTUREITWILLBEDEMONSTRATEDTHATTEACHINGAFOREIGNLANGUAGEISNOTTANTAMOUNTTOGIVINGAHOMILYONSYNTACTICSTRUCTURESORLEARNINGNEWVOCABULARYANDEXPRESSIONS,BUTMAINLYINCORPORATES,ORSHOULDINCORPORATE,
11、SOMECULTURALELEMENTS,WHICHAREINTERTWINEDWITHLANGUAGEITSELFFURTHERMORE,ANATTEMPTWILLBEMADETOINCORPORATECULTUREINTOTHECLASSROOMBYMEANSOFCONSIDERINGSOMETECHNIQUESANDMETHODSCURRENTLYUSEDTHEMAINPREMISEOFTHEPAPERISTHATEFFECTIVECOMMUNICATIONISMORETHANAMATTEROFLANGUAGEPROFICIENCYANDTHAT,APARTFROMENHANCINGAN
12、DENRICHINGCOMMUNICATIVECOMPETENCE,CULTURALCOMPETENCECANALSOLEADTOEMPATHYANDRESPECTTOWARDDIFFERENTCULTURESASWELLASPROMOTEOBJECTIVITYANDCULTURALPERSPICACITYTHETHESISCONSISTSOFFIVEPARTSTHEFIRSTPARTISANINTRODUCTIONTHESECONDPARTISADEEPSTUDYOFTHECONCEPTOFCULTUREITSELFANDITSRELATIONSHIPWITHLANGUAGEANDCOMMU
13、NICATIONITINDICATESTOUSTHATLANGUAGETEACHINGSHOULDBEBASEDONCULTURESTUDYLANGUAGEISAKEYCOMPONENTOFCULTUREITISTHEPRIMARYMEDIUMFORTRANSMITTINGMUCHOFCULTUREWITHOUTLANGUAGE,CULTUREWOULDNOTBEPOSSIBLECHILDRENLEARNINGTHEIRNATIVELANGUAGEARELEARNINGTHEIROWNCULTURELEARNINGASECONDLANGUAGEALSOINVOLVESLEARNINGASECO
14、NDCULTURETOVARYINGDEGREESONTHEOTHERHAND,LANGUAGEISINFLUENCEDANDSHAPEDBYCULTUREITREFLECTSCULTURECULTURALDIFFERENCESARETHEMOSTSERIOUSAREASCAUSINGMISUNDERSTANDING,UNPLEASANTNESSANDEVENCONFLICTINCROSSCULTURALCOMMUNICATIONTHEIDEAOFTEACHINGCULTUREISNOTHINGNEWTOSECONDLANGUAGETEACHERSINMANYCASES,TEACHINGCUL
15、TUREHASMEANTFOCUSINGAFEWLESSONSONHOLIDAYS,CUSTOMARYCLOTHING,FOLKSONGS,ANDFOODWHILETHESETOPICSMAYBEUSEFUL,WITHOUTABROADERCONTEXTORFRAMETHEYOFFERLITTLEINTHEWAYOFENRICHINGLINGUISTICORSOCIALINSIGHTESPECIALLYIFAGOALOFLANGUAGEINSTRUCTIONISTOENABLESTUDENTSTOFUNCTIONEFFECTIVELYINANOTHERLANGUAGEANDSOCIETYUND
16、ERSTANDINGTHECULTURALCONTEXTOFDAYTODAYCONVERSATIONALCONVENTIONSSUCHASGREETINGS,FAREWELLS,FORMSOFADDRESS,THANKING,MAKINGREQUESTS,ANDGIVINGORRECEIVINGCOMPLIMENTSMEANSMORETHANJUSTBEINGABLETOPRODUCEGRAMMATICALSENTENCESITMEANSKNOWINGWHATISAPPROPRIATETOSAYTOWHOM,ANDINWHATSITUATIONS,ANDITMEANSUNDERSTANDING
17、THEBELIEFSANDVALUESREPRESENTEDBYTHEVARIOUSFORMSANDUSAGESOFTHELANGUAGETHETHIRDPARTWILLBEADISPLAYOFTHEHISTORYOFCULTURETEACHINGITISONLYINTHE1980STHATSCHOLARSBEGINTODELVEINTOTHEDYNAMICSOFCULTUREANDITSVITALCONTRIBUTIONTOSUCCESSFULLANGUAGELEARNINGBYRAM,MORGANETAL,19945FOREXAMPLE,LITTLEWOODCITEDINBYRAM,MOR
18、GANETAL,19946ADVOCATESTHEVALUEOFCULTURALLEARNING,ALTHOUGHHESTILLKEEPSLINGUISTICPROFICIENCYASTHEOVERALLAIMOFCOMMUNICATIVECOMPETENCEIBIDONTHEASSUMPTIONTHATCOMMUNICATIONISNOTONLYANEXCHANGEOFINFORMATIONBUTALSOAHIGHLYCOGNITIVEASWELLASAFFECTIVEANDVALUELADENACTIVITY,MELDE1987HOLDSTHATFOREIGNLANGUAGETEACHIN
19、GSHOULDFOSTERCRITICALAWARENESSOFSOCIALLIFEAVIEWCOMMENSURATEWITHFAIRCLOUGHS1989AND1995CRITICALTHEORYSEEALSOBYRAM,MORGANETAL,1994MORESPECIFICALLY,WHENTHELEARNERUNDERSTANDSTHEPERSPECTIVESOFOTHERSANDISOFFEREDTHEOPPORTUNITYTOREFLECTONHISOWNPERSPECTIVES,THROUGHAPROCESSOFRECIPROCITY,THEREARISESAMORALDIMENS
20、ION,AJUDGMENTALTENDENCY,WHICHISNOTDEFINEDPURELYONFORMAL,LOGICALGROUNDSBYRAM,MORGANETAL,1994TOTHISEND,THELEARNERNEEDSTOTAKETHEROLEOFTHEFOREIGNER,SOTHATHEMAYGAININSIGHTSINTOTHEVALUESANDMEANINGSTHATTHELATTERHASINTERNALIZEDANDUNCONSCIOUSLYNEGOTIATESWITHTHEMEMBERSOFTHESOCIETYTOWHICHHEBELONGSIBIDBESIDEMEL
21、DE,BAUMGRATZGANGL1990ASSERTSTHATTHEINTEGRATIONOFVALUESANDMEANINGSOFTHEFOREIGNCULTUREWITHTHOSEOFONESNATIVECULTURECANBRINGABOUTASHIFTOFPERSPECTIVEORTHERECOGNITIONOFCOGNITIVEDISSONANCEBYRAM,MORGANETAL,BOTHCONDUCIVETORECIPROCITYANDEMPATHYTHEFORTHPARTCONCENTRATESONTHEDETAILEDIDEASFORCULTURETEACHINGINCOLL
22、EGEENGLISHPROGRAMSFIRSTWEINTRODUCEABOUTTHEOBJECTIVEOFCULTURETEACHINGSEVENGOALSOFCULTURETEACHINGISLISTEDTOHELPSTUDENTSTODEVELOPANUNDERSTANDINGOFTHEFACTTHATALLPEOPLEEXHIBITCULTURALLYCONDITIONEDBEHAVIORSTOHELPSTUDENTSTODEVELOPANUNDERSTANDINGTHATSOCIALVARIABLESSUCHASAGE,SEX,SOCIALCLASS,ANDPLACEOFRESIDEN
23、CEINFLUENCETHEWAYSINWHICHPEOPLESPEAKANDBEHAVETOHELPSTUDENTSTOBECOMEMOREAWAREOFCONVENTIONALBEHAVIORINCOMMONSITUATIONSINTHETARGETCULTURETOHELPSTUDENTSTOINCREASETHEIRAWARENESSOFTHECULTURALCONNOTATIONSOFWORDSANDPHRASESINTHETARGETLANGUAGETOHELPSTUDENTSTODEVELOPTHEABILITYTOEVALUATEANDREFINEGENERALIZATIONS
24、ABOUTTHETARGETCULTURE,INTERMSOFSUPPORTINGEVIDENCETOHELPSTUDENTSTODEVELOPTHENECESSARYSKILLSTOLOCATEANDORGANIZEINFORMATIONABOUTTHETARGETCULTURETOSTIMULATESTUDENTSINTELLECTUALCURIOSITYABOUTTHETARGETCULTURE,ANDTOENCOURAGEEMPATHYTOWARDSITSPEOPLEATANYRATE,THEAIMOFTEACHINGCULTUREISTOINCREASESTUDENTSAWARENE
25、SSANDTODEVELOPTHEIRCURIOSITYTOWARDSTHETARGETCULTUREANDTHEIROWN,HELPINGTHEMTOMAKECOMPARISONSAMONGCULTURESATTHEENDOFTHEPART,WEWILLDISCUSSSOMESPECIFICTECHNIQUESOFCULTUREINCORPORATION,SUCHASUSINGAUTHENTICMATERIALS,PROVERBS,ROLEPLAY,CULTURECAPSULES,STUDENTSASCULTURALRESOURCES,ETHNOGRAPHICSTUDIES,LITERATU
26、REFILMCULTURALINFORMATIONSHOULDBEPRESENTEDINANONJUDGMENTALFASHION,INAWAYTHATDOESNOTPLACEVALUEORJUDGMENTONDISTINCTIONSBETWEENTHESTUDENTSNATIVECULTUREANDTHECULTUREEXPLOREDINTHECLASSROOMKRAMSCH1993DESCRIBESTHETHIRDCULTUREOFTHELANGUAGECLASSROOMANEUTRALSPACETHATLEARNERSCANCREATEANDUSETOEXPLOREANDREFLECTO
27、NTHEIROWNANDTHETARGETCULTUREANDLANGUAGETHELASTPARTISTHECONCLUSIONKEYWORDSCULTURE,CULTURETEACHING,CULTUREAWARENESS,CULTUREANDLANGUAGETABLEOFCONTENTSABSTRACTIINTRODUCTIONIIOVERALLSTUDYCULTURENEVERTHELESS,PAYINGLIPSERVICETOTHESOCIALDYNAMICSTHATUNDERLINELANGUAGEWITHOUTTRYINGTOIDENTIFYANDGAININSIGHTSINTO
28、THEVERYFABRICOFSOCIETYANDCULTURETHATHAVECOMETOCHARGELANGUAGEINMANYANDVARIEDWAYSCANONLYCAUSEMISUNDERSTANDINGANDLEADTOCROSSCULTURALMISCOMMUNICATIONATANYRATE,FOREIGNLANGUAGELEARNINGISFOREIGNCULTURELEARNING,AND,INONEFORMORANOTHER,CULTUREHAS,EVENIMPLICITLY,BEENTAUGHTINTHEFOREIGNLANGUAGECLASSROOMIFFORDIFF
29、ERENTREASONSWHATISDEBATABLE,THOUGH,ISWHATISMEANTBYTHETERMCULTUREANDHOWTHELATTERISINTEGRATEDINTOLANGUAGELEARNINGANDTEACHINGKRAMSCHSKEENOBSERVATIONSHOULDNOTGOUNNOTICEDCULTUREINLANGUAGELEARNINGISNOTANEXPENDABLEFIFTHSKILL,TACKEDON,SOTOSPEAK,TOTHETEACHINGOFSPEAKING,LISTENING,READING,ANDWRITINGITISALWAYSI
30、NTHEBACKGROUND,RIGHTFROMDAYONE,READYTOUNSETTLETHEGOODLANGUAGELEARNERSWHENTHEYEXPECTITLEAST,MAKINGEVIDENTTHELIMITATIONSOFTHEIRHARDWONCOMMUNICATIVECOMPETENCE,CHALLENGINGTHEIRABILITYTOMAKESENSEOFTHEWORLDAROUNDTHEMKRAMSCH,19931THETEACHINGOFCULTUREISNOTAKINTOTHETRANSMISSIONOFINFORMATIONREGARDINGTHEPEOPLE
31、OFTHETARGETCOMMUNITYORCOUNTRYEVENTHOUGHKNOWLEDGEABOUTLETALONEEXPERIENCEOFTHETARGETGROUPISANIMPORTANTINGREDIENTSEENOSTRAND,1967118ITWOULDBENOTHINGSHORTOFLUDICROUSTOASSERTTHATCULTUREISMERELYAREPOSITORYOFFACTSANDEXPERIENCESTOWHICHONECANHAVERECOURSE,IFNEEDBEFURTHERMORE,WHATKRAMSCHHERSELFSEEMSTOINSINUATE
32、ISTHATTOLEARNAFOREIGNLANGUAGEISNOTMERELYTOLEARNHOWTOCOMMUNICATEBUTALSOTODISCOVERHOWMUCHLEEWAYTHETARGETLANGUAGEALLOWSLEARNERSTOMANIPULATEGRAMMATICALFORMS,SOUNDS,ANDMEANINGS,ANDTOREFLECTUPON,OREVENFLOUT,SOCIALLYACCEPTEDNORMSATWORKBOTHINTHEIROWNORTHETARGETCULTURETHEREISDEFINITELYMORETHANMEETSTHEEYE,AND
33、THEPRESENTPAPERHASTHEAIMOFUNRAVELINGTHEMYSTERY,SHEDDINGSOMELIGHTONTHEROLEOFTEACHINGCULTUREINFOSTERINGCROSSCULTURALUNDERSTANDINGWHICHTRANSCENDSTHEBOUNDARIESOFLINGUISTICFORMSWHILEENRICHINGANDGIVINGFARDEEPERMEANINGTOWHATISDUBBEDCOMMUNICATIVECOMPETENCEANDRUNSCOUNTERTOASOLIPSISTICWORLDVIEWIWOULDLIKETOSHO
34、WTHATTHETEACHINGOFCULTUREHASENJOYEDFARLESSADULATIONTHANITMERITS,ANDCONSIDERWAYSOFINCORPORATINGITNOTONLYINTOTHEFOREIGNLANGUAGECURRICULUMBUTALSOINTOLEARNERSREPERTOIREANDOUTLOOKONLIFETHEMAINPREMISEOFTHISPAPERISTHATWECANNOTGOABOUTTEACHINGAFOREIGNLANGUAGEWITHOUTATLEASTOFFERINGSOMEINSIGHTSINTOITSSPEAKERSC
35、ULTUREBYTHESAMETOKEN,WECANNOTGOABOUTFOSTERINGCOMMUNICATIVECOMPETENCEWITHOUTTAKINGINTOACCOUNTTHEDIFFERENTVIEWSANDPERSPECTIVESOFPEOPLEINDIFFERENTCULTURESWHICHMAYENHANCEOREVENINHIBITCOMMUNICATIONAFTERALL,COMMUNICATIONREQUIRESUNDERSTANDING,ANDUNDERSTANDINGREQUIRESSTEPPINGINTOTHESHOESOFTHEFOREIGNERANDSIF
36、TINGHERCULTURALBAGGAGE,WHILEALWAYSPUTTINGTHETARGETCULTUREINRELATIONWITHONESOWNKRAMSCH,1993205MOREOVER,WESHOULDBECOGNIZANTOFTHEFACTTHATIFWETEACHLANGUAGEWITHOUTTEACHINGATTHESAMETIMETHECULTUREINWHICHITOPERATES,WEARETEACHINGMEANINGLESSSYMBOLSORSYMBOLSTOWHICHTHESTUDENTATTACHESTHEWRONGMEANINGPOLITZER,1959
37、100101CHAPTERIIOVERALLSTUDYCULTUREITISTHATPARTOFLEARNEDBEHAVIORSHAREDWITHOTHERSNOTONLYDOESTHISCONCEPTINCLUDEAGROUPSWAYOFTHINKING,FEELING,ANDACTING,BUTALSOTHEINTERNALIZEDPATTERNSFORDOINGCERTAINTHINGSINCERTAINWAYS,NOTJUSTTHEDOINGOFTHEMTHISCONCEPTOFCULTUREALSOINCLUDESTHEPHYSICALMANIFESTATIONSOFAGROUPAS
38、EXHIBITEDINTHEIRACHIEVEMENTSANDCONTRIBUTIONSTOCIVILIZATIONCULTUREISOURSOCIALLEGACYASCONTRASTEDWITHOURORGANICHEREDITYITREGULATESOURLIVESATEVERYTURNITCOULDBEARGUEDTHATCULTURENEVERREMAINSSTATIC,BUTISCONSTANTLYCHANGINGINTHISLIGHT,ROBINSON1988DISMISSESBEHAVIORIST,FUNCTIONALIST,ANDCOGNITIVEDEFINITIONSOFCU
39、LTUREANDPOSITSASYMBOLICONEWHICHSEESCULTUREASADYNAMICSYSTEMOFSYMBOLSANDMEANINGSWHEREBYPASTEXPERIENCEINFLUENCESMEANING,WHICHINTURNAFFECTSFUTUREEXPERIENCE,WHICHINTURNAFFECTSSUBSEQUENTMEANING,ANDSOONITISTHISDYNAMICNATUREOFCULTURETHATHASBEENLOSTSIGHTOFANDUNDERRATEDINFOREIGNLANGUAGETEACHINGANDOUGHTTOBECAS
40、TINANEWPERSPECTIVELEARNINGAFOREIGNLANGUAGECANBESUBVERSIVEOFTHEASSUMPTIONSANDPREMISESOPERATINGINTHEHOMECULTURESTRAUB,1999,WHICHREQUIRESTHATLEARNERSBEOFFEREDTHEOPPORTUNITYFORPERSONALGROWTH,INTERMSOFPERSONALMEANINGS,PLEASURES,ANDPOWERKRAMSCH,1993238ASKRAMSCHIBID238NOTES,FROMTHECLASHBETWEENTHENATIVECULT
41、UREANDTHETARGETCULTURE,MEANINGSTHATWERETAKENFORGRANTEDARESUDDENLYQUESTIONED,CHALLENGEDHOWEVER,INORDERTOQUESTIONANDREINTERPRETREYNOLDSANDSKILBECK,19766L2CULTURE,L1OBSERVERSMUSTFIRSTBECOMEAWAREOFWHATITMEANSTOPARTICIPATEINTHEIROWNCULTUREANDWHATTHECONTENTSOFCULTUREAREAPARTFROMBROOKS,WHOSEWORKWEMENTIONED
42、EARLIERON,SEVERALOTHERSCHOLARSSUCHASLADO1964,GOODENOUGH1981,KALLENBACH2CULTUREISSHAREDBYTHEWHOLECOMMUNITY,ANDDOESNTBELONGINGTOANYPARTICULARINDIVIDUAL3CULTUREISASYMBOLICMEANINGSYSTEMINWHICHLANGUAGEISONEOFTHEMOSTIMPORTANTONES4CULTUREISAUNIFIEDSYSTEM,THEINTEGRALPARTSOFWHICHARECLOSELYRELATEDTOONEANOTHER
43、VARIOUSDEFINITIONSONCULTUREAREGIVENBYSCHOLARSFROMDIFFERENTPOINTSOFVIEWSOMETREATEDCULTURESUPERFICIALLYASASETOFSPECIFICARTIFACTS,MANMADEENVIRONMENTS,PATTERNSOFSOCIALORGANIZATIONANDOVERTFORMSOFBEHAVIOROTHERSTREATEDCULTUREINAMOREABSTRACTWAYASTHESHAREDKNOWLEDGEOFMEMBERSOFSOCIALCOMMUNITIESLIKEWORLDVIEWS,V
44、ALUEORIENTATIONS,NORMS,MANNERS,CUSTOMS,PREFERREDSTYLESOFTHINKINGANDARGUING,ETCBEINGTAKENASSOCIALLYACQUIREDKNOWLEDGEHUDSON,198074,CULTUREISCLASSIFIEDBYSOMESCHOLARSINTOCULTURALKNOWLEDGEINFORMATIONANDCULTURALCOMMUNICATIONINFORMATIONTHEFORMERREFERSTOTHEFACTUALINFORMATIONTHATDOESNOTEXERTADIRECTINFLUENCEO
45、NTHECROSSCULTURALCOMMUNICATION,INCLUDINGANATIONSHISTORY,GEOGRAPHYANDSOONTHELATTERPOINTSTOTHESOCIOPRAGMATICRULESINDAILYCOMMUNICATIONWHICHENTAILNOTONLYWAYSOFGREETING,THANKING,APOLOGIZINGANDADDRESSING,BUTALSOATTENTIONTOTABOOS,EUPHEMISMS,MODESTYANDPOLITEFORMULAINUSE,ETCTHEFACTUALINFORMATIONPROVIDESTHENO
46、NNATIVESPEAKERSWITHNODIRECTDILEMMASVARIATIONSNOWWEARECLEARABOUTWHATCULTUREACTUALLYISHOWEVER,THEPROPERTIESOFCULTUREMAYFEELQUITEDIFFERENTFROMPLACETOPLACEORFROMPERSONTOPERSONITVARIESSTUDYINGTHEVARIATIONSOFCULTUREWILLHELPUSUNDERSTANDTHECONCEPTOFCULTUREBETTERBELOWWELISTEDAFEWIMPORTANTPOINTSTHATCONCERNTHE
47、VARIATIONOFCULTUREDISTINGUISHINGVERSUSCONSUMINGCULTURESSOMECULTURESGIVEWEIGHTANDPRESENCETHOUGHNOTNECESSARILYEQUALTOEACHOFTHEIRCONSTITUENTELEMENTSTHEINDIVIDUALANDSOCIALSTRUCTURESEACHSUCHELEMENTISIDIOSYNCRATICANDUNIQUESUCHCULTURESWOULDACCENTUATEATTENTIONTODETAILS,PRIVATEENTERPRISE,INITIATIVE,INNOVATIO
48、N,ENTREPRENEURSHIP,INVENTIVENESS,YOUTH,STATUSSYMBOLS,CONSUMPTION,MONEY,CREATIVITY,ART,SCIENCEANDTECHNOLOGYTHESEARETHETHINGSTHATDISTINGUISHONEINDIVIDUALFROMANOTHERSUCHCULTURESEMPHASIZEGENERALIZATIONS,STEREOTYPES,CONFORMITY,CONSENSUS,BELONGING,SOCIALSTRUCTURES,PROCEDURES,FORMS,UNDERTAKINGSINVOLVINGTHE
49、LABOROROTHERINPUTOFHUMANMASSESFUTUREVERSUSPASTORIENTEDCULTURESSOMECULTURESLOOKTOTHEPASTREALORIMAGINARYFORINSPIRATION,MOTIVATION,SUSTENANCE,HOPE,GUIDANCEANDDIRECTIONTHESECULTURESTENDTODIRECTTHEIREFFORTSANDRESOURCESANDINVESTTHEMINWHATISTHEYARE,THEREFORE,BOUNDTOBEMATERIALISTIC,FIGURATIVE,SUBSTANTIVE,ANDEARTHLYTHEYARELIKELYTOPREFEROLDAGETOYOUTH,OLDHABITSTONEW,OLDBUILDINGSTOMODERNARCHITECTURE,ETCTHISPREFERENCEOFTHEELDERSATERMOFVENERATIONOVERTHEYOUNGSTERSADENIGRATINGTERMTYPIFIESTHEMSTRONGLYTHESECULTURESARELIKELYTOBERISKAVERSEOTHERCULTURESLOOKTOTHEFUTUR
