1、外文翻译原文FINANCIALFORECASTING,RISKANDVALUATIONACCOUNTINGFORTHEFUTUREMATERIALSOURCEAJOURNALOFACCOUNTING,FINANCEANDBUSINESSSTUDIEAUTHORSTEPHENHPENMANVALUATIONINVOLVESFORECASTINGPAYOFFSANDDISCOUNTINGEXPECTEDPAYOFFSFORRISK,FORECASTINGISOFTENSEENASTHEPROVINCEOFTHESTATISTICIAN,RISKDETERMINATIONTHEPROVINCEOFA
2、SSETPRICINGTHISPAPERELABORATESONTHEIDEATHATFINANCIALFORECASTING,RISKDETERMINATIONANDVALUATIONAREAMATTEROFACCOUNTINGACCOUNTINGNOTONLYPROVIDESINFORMATIONTOFORECASTPAYOFFSBUTALSOSPECIFIESTHEPAYOFFSTOBEFORECASTEDFURTHER,ACCOUNTINGDETERMINESTHETRANSITIONFROMTHEPRESENTTOTHEFUTUREANDTHUSIMPLICITLYTHEEVOLUT
3、IONARYPARAMETERSTHATASTATISTICIANMIGHTESTIMATEFORFORECASTINGACCOUNTINGALSOBEARSONRISKDETERMINATIONINTHEWAYITHANDLESUNCERTAINTY,ACCORDINGLY,ACCOUNTINGISINVOLVEDINBOTHTHENUMERATORANDTHEDENOMINATOROFAVALUATIONMODELINDEED,AVALUATIONMODELISAMODELOFACCOUNTINGFORTHEFUTURE,ANDTHEEFFECTIVENESSOFAVALUATIONMOD
4、ELRIDESONTHEACCOUNTINGPRINCIPLESEMPLOYEDTHISPAPERELABORATESONONEIDEAFINANCIALFORECASTING,RISKDETERMINATIONANDVALUATIONAREAMATTEROFACCOUNTINGFORECASTINGISOFTENSEENASTHEPROVINCEOFTHESTATISTICIANTHEPAPERMAKESTHEPOINTTHATFORECASTINGANDACCOUNTINGARESOMUCHLINKEDTHATONECANSAYTHATFORECASTINGISREALLYAMATTERO
5、FACCOUNTINGFORTHEFUTURERISKANALYSISFORVALUATIONHASBEENTHEPROVINCEOFASSETPRICINGINFINANCETHEPAPERARGUESTHATACCOUNTINGALSOBEARSONRISKDETERMINATION,INTRODUCINGTHEIDEATHATASSETPRICINGALSOINVOLVESACCOUNTINGFORTHEFUTUREACCORDINGLY,ACCOUNTINGISVERYMUCHTHEFOCUSINVALUATIONINDEED,THEPAPEROPENSUPTHEPOSSIBILITY
6、THATALLASPECTSOFVALUATIONCANBECARRIEDOUTWITHINANACCOUNTINGFRAMEWORKFORECASTINGANDRISKDETERMINATIONAREVERYMUCHATTHEHEARTOFPRACTICALVALUATIONASSETVALUEISDETERMINEDBYFUTURE,UNCERTAINPAYOFFS,SOVALUATIONREQUIRESFORECASTINGUNDERUNCERTAINTY,WITHBOTHTHEFORECASTANDTHEUNCERTAINTYPRICEDFORAONEPERIODPAYOFFFOREX
7、AMPLE,THEVALUATIONTASKISEXPRESSEDASPTEXT1/1R,WHEREXT1ISCONSUMPTIONATTHEENDOFTHENEXTPERIOD,TYPICALLYEXPRESSEDASCASHTHATCANPURCHASECONSUMPTION,ANDRISTHEDISCOUNTFORTHERISKTHATCONSUMPTIONMAYBEOTHERTHANEXPECTEDPLUSTHEINTERESTRATEFORTHEPRICEOFDELAYEDCONSUMPTIONFORECASTINGBEARSONTHEDETERMINATIONOFTHEEXPECT
8、EDPAYOFFINTHENUMERATOR,WHILEASSETPRICINGBEARSONTHEDETERMINATIONOFTHEDISCOUNTINTHEDENOMINATORBOTHCANBEVIEWEDASAMATTEROFACCOUNTINGAPURELYSTATISTICALAPPROACHTOFORECASTINGSEESTHEOBJECTOFTHEFORECASTASADRAWINGFROMACONDITIONALDISTRIBUTION,WITHTHEEXPECTEDVALUEGIVENBYTRANSITIONALPARAMETERSAPPLIEDTOCURRENTOBS
9、ERVABLES,ANDTHERISKERRORINTHEFORECASTGIVENBYADISTRIBUTIONOFUNPREDICTABLEREALIZATIONSAROUNDTHISEXPECTATIONTHESEFEATURESAREREFERREDTOASAGENERATINGPROCESSANARIMAPROCESS,FOREXAMPLETHESTATISTICALEXERCISESIMPLYESTIMATESTHEPARAMETERSOFTHEPROCESSFROMBEHAVIORINTHEDATABUTOBSERVABLESAREOFTENGENERATEDBYNATURE,W
10、ITHTHEPROCESSGOVERNEDBYLAWSOFNATURE,ALBEITOFTENNOTDETERMINISTICALLYSOTHOSELAWSAREUTILIZEDINTHEFORECASTING,SUCHTHATTOMORROWSWEATHERISFORECASTEDBASEDONTHEPRINCIPLESOFMETEOROLOGY,ALBEITWITHERRORACCOUNTINGISALSOAPROCESS,BUTNOTONEGENERATEDBYNATURERATHER,ACCOUNTINGISMANMADE,AMATTEROFDESIGNCHOICETHEDESIGNC
11、ONSISTSOFANUMBEROFSTRUCTURALRELATIONSACCOUNTINGEQUATIONSTHATARTICULATETHEBALANCESHEET,INCOMESTATEMENTANDCASHFLOWSTATEMENT,ANDASETOFACCOUNTINGPRINCIPLESSOCALLEDRECOGNITIONANDMEASUREMENTPRINCIPLESTHATPRESCRIBETHENUMBERSTHATGOINTOTHOSESTATEMENTSTHEPROCESSHASTHREEFEATURESTHATLINKACCOUNTINGTOFORECASTINGA
12、NDVALUATION1ACCOUNTINGLINKSTOCASHFLOWSANDTHUSCONSUMPTIONANDVALUATIONTHROUGHTHEBASICSTRUCTURALRELATIONTHATTIESTHEBALANCESHEETANDINCOMESTATEMENTTOTHECASHFLOWSTATEMENTCASHFLOWFROMANASSETEARNINGSCHANGEINTHEBALANCESHEETVALUEOFASSETWITHEQUITYVALUATIONINMIND,THISCLEANSURPLUSEQUATIONISMOSTOFTENSTATEDFOREQUI
13、TY,BUTAPPLIESTOANYASSET,INCLUDINGDEBTFORDEBTVALUATIONANDTHEFIRM,DEBTPLUSEQUITYFORENTERPRISEVALUATION2ACCOUNTINGPRINCIPLESTHATDETERMINEEARNINGSANDBALANCESHEETBOOKVALUESOPERATETOALLOCATEEARNINGSBETWEENPERIODSPERIODICEARNINGSANDCASHFLOWSDIFFERACCORDINGTOTIMINGRULESPRESCRIBEDFOREARNINGSANDBOOKVALUES,BUT
14、TOTALEARNINGSFROMANASSETALWAYSEQUALSTOTALCASHFLOWSBECAUSETHECHANGEINBOOKVALUEISZEROOVERTHELIFEOFTHEASSET3COMPONENTSOFFINANCIALSTATEMENTSTIETOEARNINGSANDBOOKVALUESACCORDINGTOFIXED,STRUCTURALRELATIONSSUCHTHATFINANCIALSTATEMENTNUMBERSAGGREGATETOEARNINGSANDBOOKVALUESINADETERMINISTICWAYACCOUNTINGFEATURE1
15、IMPLIESTHAT,RATHERTHANFORECASTINGCASHFLOWSFORVALUATION,ONECANEQUIVALENTLYFORECASTEARNINGSANDBOOKVALUESFORECASTINGCANBESEENASAMATTEROFACCOUNTINGFORTHEFUTURE,WITHTHATACCOUNTINGDEFINEDBYHOWEARNINGSANDBOOKVALUESAREMEASUREDFORECASTINGCASHFLOWSIMPLICITLYINVOLVESPURECASHACCOUNTINGACCRUALACCOUNTINGMODIFIEST
16、HEFORECASTTOTARGETAPARTICULARMEASUREMENTOFEARNINGSANDBOOKVALUESTHEFIRSTORDERINFORECASTINGISTOSPECIFYTHEACCOUNTING,THEISSUEOFHOWONEACCOUNTSFORTHEFUTURETHEIMPLIEDRESEARCHQUESTION,THEN,ISWHATACCOUNTINGBESTFACILITATESFORECASTINGANDTHEVALUATIONCASHACCOUNTINGANDACCRUALACCOUNTINGCANBEENCOMPAREDONTHEIRUTILI
17、TYFORFORECASTINGANDVALUATION,ANDSOCANDIFFERENTFORMSOFACCRUALACCOUNTING,IFRSANDUSGAAPACCOUNTINGFOREXAMPLEACCOUNTINGISAMATTEROFDESIGNFORUTILITARIANPURPOSESINTHISCASE,VALUATIONSOTHEACCOUNTINGRESEARCHERANDULTIMATELYTHEACCOUNTINGSTANDARDSETTERASKSWHATACCOUNTINGBESTSERVESFORECASTINGANDVALUATIONHISTORICALC
18、OSTACCOUNTINGFAIRVALUEACCOUNTINGANEWDESIGNINTHEIRCONCEPTUALFRAMEWORKDOCUMENTS,THEFASBANDIASBFIRMLYEMBRACETHEIDEATHATACCOUNTINGSERVESTOFORECASTFUTURECASHFLOWSBUTTHEISSUEISMORESUBTLEACCOUNTINGNUMBERSARENOTJUSTTHEPREDICTORBUTALSOTHETARGETOFTHEPREDICTION,ALBEITWITHTHEPURPOSEOFFORECASTINGFUTURECASHFLOWSA
19、CCOUNTINGFEATURE2INFORMSTHATTHESPECIFICATIONOFACCOUNTINGFORTHEFUTUREALSOSPECIFIESTHEACCOUNTINGFORTHEPRESENTACCOUNTINGALLOCATESTOPERIODSAND,TOTHEPOINT,ALLOCATESBETWEENTHEPRESENTANDTHEFUTUREACCORDINGLY,ACCOUNTINGPRINCIPLESDETERMINETHETRANSITIONFROMTHEPRESENTTOTHEFUTURE,SOFORECASTINGOFFUTUREACCOUNTINGN
20、UMBERSFROMCURRENT,OBSERVEDNUMBERSISALSOAMATTEROFACCOUNTINGSTATISTICALFORECASTINGSPECIFIESTHATEVOLUTIONWITHPARAMETERSARISESFROMAPROCESSESTIMATEDUSINGTHEDATAORDICTATEDBYNATUREACCOUNTINGSPECIFIESTHEEVOLUTIONUSINGTHEPROCESSDICTATEDBYTHEACCOUNTINGPRINCIPLESEMPLOYEDACCOUNTINGISSELFREFERENTIAL,WITHFUTURENU
21、MBERSSPECIFIEDASTHETARGETFORFORECASTINGDETERMINEDINPARTBYTHEACCOUNTINGFORTHECURRENTNUMBERSTHATSELFREFERENCEDIRECTSTHEFORECASTINGACCOUNTINGFEATURE3SAYSTHATEARNINGSANDBOOKVALUEARECONSTRUCTEDFROMOTHERASPECTSOFTHEFINANCIALSTATEMENTSINADETERMINISTICWAYTHEREARETWOIMPLICATIONSFORFORECASTINGFIRST,FORECASTSO
22、FEARNINGSANDBOOKVALUESANDTHUSCASHFLOWSCANBECONSTRUCTEDFROMMOREELEMENTARYELEMENTSTHESTRUCTURELAYSOUTTHEBUILDINGBLOCKSOFAFORECASTSO,ASANEXAMPLE,AFORECASTOFEARNINGSISSATISFIEDBYAFORECASTOFREVENUESANDEXPENSESANDTHEIRCOMPONENTS,ANDAFORECASTOFBOOKVALUEBYAFORECASTOFASSETSANDLIABILITIESANDTHEIRCOMPONENTSSEC
23、OND,STRUCTURALRELATIONSDISCIPLINEFORECASTING,ANDTHEFORECASTERCANNOTWANDERBEYONDTHEBOUNDSIMPOSEDBYTHESERELATIONSFOREXAMPLE,AFORECASTOFEARNINGSISCONSTRAINEDBYACCOUNTINGRELATIONSTHATREQUIRETHATEARNINGSMUSTNOTONLYEQUALREVENUESMINUSEXPENSESBUTALSOEQUALTHECHANGEINBOOKVALUEFORAGIVENDIVIDEND,ANDTHECHANGEINB
24、OOKVALUEMUSTEQUALTHECHANGEINASSETSMINUSTHECHANGEINLIABILITIESFORECASTSOUTSIDETHESEBOUNDSAREINADMISSIBLEPRACTICALVALUATIONLOOKSTOASSETPRICINGINFINANCETOSUPPLYTHERISKPREMIUMRISKINVALUATIONISSUMMARIZEDBYMOMENTSOFTHEJOINTERRORDISTRIBUTIONOFFORECASTS,ANDASSETPRICINGDEVELOPSMODELSTHATPRICETHESEDISTRIBUTIO
25、NSASSETPRICINGMODELSAREBASEDONASSUMPTIONSONTHEFORMOFTHEDISTRIBUTIONORUTILITYFUNCTIONSASWITHTHECAPITALASSETPRICINGMODEL,ORASSUMPTIONSOFNOARBITRAGEASINNOARBITRAGEASSETPRICINGMODELSORMODELSAREDEVELOPEDSIMPLYFROMOBSERVEDCORRELATIONSBETWEENATTRIBUTESANDRETURNSANDBETWEENASSETRETURNSANDCONJECTUREDCOMMONFAC
26、TORMIMICKINGPORTFOLIOSTHEFAMAANDFRENCHTHREEFACTORMODELTHATINCLUDESFACTORSRELATEDTOSIZEANDBOOKTOMARKETASWELLASTHEMARKETRETURNAPPEARSTOBETHEPREMIERMODELOFTHISTYPEALLMODELSRECOGNIZETHEDIVERSIFICATIONPROPERTYRISKSACROSSASSETSARELESSTHANPERFECTLYCORRELATEDSOISREDUCEDBYDIVERSIFICATIONWITHOUTCOSTINAFRICTIO
27、NLESSMARKETTHEINVESTORISEXPOSEDONLYTOCOMMONFACTORSTHATCANNOTBEDIVERSIFIEDAWAY,SOCOVARIANCESMUSTBETAKENINTOACCOUNT译文财务预测,风险及评价未来的会计资料来源会计,金融,商业研究杂志作者斯蒂芬估值水平涉及债务预测,预期收益贴现风险,预测往往被认为是统计的范围,资产价值范围的风险决策。本文详细阐述了财务预测,风险确定和评估作为一种会计方式的想法。会计不仅仅提供信息,预测债务,也要具体分析可以被预测的结果。此外,会计决定从现在到未来的过渡,这种间接的参数变动法可以被分析家用来估计和预测。会
28、计也承担了在处理不确定事件过程中一系列的风险决策。因此,会计涉及分子分母的估值模型。实际上,这种估值模型是一种未来的会计模式,它的有效性建立在被使用的会计原则的基础上。本文详细阐述了一个理念财务预测,风险的决心和计价的会计问题。预测经常被认为是统计学家的责任。本文指出了预测和会计是如此的息息相关,以至于一个人可以说预测是会计未来的事项。风险分析(估值)在财务上一直是风险定价的范畴,本文认为会计承担了风险的决策。因此,会计在估值中存在核心地位,本文开启了估值的任何方面都可以用会计框架来制定的可能。预测和风险决策在实际的评估中处于核定的地位。资产的价值是由未来,不确定的收益,所以估值要求在不确定的
29、条件下进行预测,同时包括预测和不确定的价值。对于一期的收益(例如)估值的形式是表示成PTEXT1/1R,其中XT1表示下一期的期末,通常认为现金可以用来购买消费,R表示消耗可能比预期低(加上通货膨胀的利率)的风险折扣。预测事关预期收益,处于分子的位置;而资产价值事关折旧,处以分母的位置,两者都可以被认为是会计事项。一个纯粹预测的统计方法可以看作一个有条件的分布的描述,应用到当前就是通过一个过渡参数。而且在整个预测过程中风险(错误)都会在一些不确定的意识的分布中产生。这些过程被称为生产过程(例如一种ARIMA过程)。这种统计方法简单从可以运行的数据当中简单估计参数的过程,但是参数通常是自然产生,
30、通过自然法律产生的过程,虽然有时不一定必然。因此这些法律在预测中通常是无效的。这样明天的气象预报通常是建立在一些气象原则的基础之上,虽然有时会有错误。会计是一种过程,但是不是自然产生的,相反,会计是一种人造的,一种设计的选择。这些设计组成了很多的结构关系(会计方程)来阐明资产负债表,损益表和先进流量表及其一整套的会计准则被称作会计确认和计量的原则,用来描述归入资产负债表的这些数据。这种过程有三个特征与会计的预测和估值紧密相关。1会计与现金流有关(这种假设和评估)通过基本的结构关系把资产负债表,损益表和现金流量表建立联系资产的现金流收入资产负债表方的资产价值的变动通过在心中进行平衡的估值,这种“
31、净盈余相等”通常被认为是平衡。它使用于任何的资产,包括负债(债务价值)和所有者权益,负债加上所有者权益(企业价值)。2会计准则(决定收益和资产负债表账面价值的)在会计期间对收入进行分配。一定时间的收入和现金流动不同于通过时间价值分配的收入和账面价值,但是一项资产总的收入总是等于总的现金流(因为在资产的整个使用寿命期间,其价值的变动始终为零)3财务报表的组成是通过固定资产,结构性的关系例如以一种确定方式产生的收入和账面价值的财务报表数据来与收入和账面价值建立联系的。会计特征1表明,一个人可以同时预测收入和账面价值,而不是预测现金流的价值。预测可以被认为是会计未来的一种事项,会计通过收益和账面价值
32、如何被计量来定义。预测现金流毫无疑问涉及到纯现金账户。权责发生制限定了针对某一特定收入和账面价值计量的预测。预测的第一步是为未来将要发生的事项指定账户。那么潜在的问题就是什么使会计更容易预测和估值。现金账户和应计账户可以被用来比较,这种比较建立在他们预测和估值的有效性的基础之上,应计账户不同的形式也可以这样,例如国际会计准则和美国公认会计准则中的账户。会计是对未来不确定的事项的一种估计方式,在这种情况下,估值人员包括会计的估值人员(包括最终的会计标准的制定者)就会问会计人员最好提供怎样的预测和估值是按历史成本记账还是按公允价值记账还是一种新的记账方式在他们概念性的框架文件中,美国财务会计准则委
33、员会和国际会计准则委员会坚决认为会计是提供未来现金流预测的。但是这个问题更微妙,会计数字不仅仅是预警器,它也是预测目标,尽管只是预测未来的现金流。会计特征2表明会计是包括现在和未来两类事项的具体说明。会计按期间进行分配,基于这一点,分配在现在和未来进行。因此,会计准则确定了现在和未来的转换,从现在的,可以观察的数字来预测未来的会计事项时会计的一种任务。统计预测从使用数据或自然指定的估计过程中来确定参数的变动。会计通过应用的会计准则来指定这些变动,会计是自我参照,会计通过现在一些数据对未来的数据进行预测,从而为未来的决策提供帮助。会计准则3表明收入和账面价值是由财务报表的其他方面以一种确定的方式
34、构建。预测有两层含义首先,收入和账面价值(包括现金流)可以从其他更多的基本元素中构建。这种结构勾画出预测的基础。所以,举例来说,收入的预测要满足相关税费的预测(包括他们的各个部分),账面价值的预测涉及到资产和负债的要预测(包括相关的部分),其次结构条件也影响着预测,预测者不能超越作用这些条件的界限随意预测。例如收入受到会计条件的限制,这些条件要求收入不仅仅只是税收加上相关的费用,而且还要等于账面价值的变化(对于股息来说),账面价值的变动必须等于资产的变动减去负债的变动。超过这些界限的预测是无效的。实际价值视为财务上资产的价值加上风险溢价,风险在估值中被概述为预测过程中可能出现的错误点,资产价格发展了这些定价发展的模型。资产定价模型是基于对分配或实用功能(如与资本资产定价模型),或无套利假设(如无套利资产定价模型)的形式假设。模型仅仅只是通过资产回报之间的相关性观察和猜想的共同因子模拟组合来发展的。法玛和法国的三要素模型,其中包括相关的大小,账面值对市值(以及市场回报率)似乎是这种类型的首要因素模型。所有模型都承认多样化属性资产风险是不完全相关的,所以他们通常会被多样化的因素削减(在无摩擦的市场上是没有风险的),投资者仅仅只是在一些确定的因素下辈告知一些事项,因此协方差也是值得考虑的。即投资者应该考虑更多的因素。