1、英语词汇学复习资料Introduction English as a global1. Lexicology（词汇学） is a branch of linguistics（语言学）. 2. Lexicology和哪些重要的学科建立了联系1) Morphology（构词学）2) Semantics（语义学）3) Stylistics（语体学） 4) Etymology（词源学） 3. 研究lexicology的两大方法 1) Diachronic approach : 历时语言学2) Synchronic approach : 共时语言学Chapter 1 Lexicology and bas
2、ic concepts of words and vocabulary1. Word A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function.2. There is no logical relationship between sound and meaning as the symbolic connection between them is arbitrary (任意的)and conventional（约定的,俗称的）. 3. sound
3、 form The sound should be similar to/consistent with the form ,but there are some illogical不合逻辑的and irregularity不规则的 1) influenced by Romans 2) Pronunciation changed 3) early scribes （抄写员）4) borrowing 4. Vocabulary Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stan
4、d for all the words used in a particular historical period.5. Classification of Wordsbasic full/content 实义词 native/Anglo-Saxon wordsfrequency notion origin nonbasic/vocabulary functional/empty 功能词 borrowed/loan(1) The characteristics of basic word stock the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated o
5、ver centuries and forms the All national character common care of the language. Stability（稳定性） Productivity（多产性）Polysemy （一词多义）Collocability （可搭配性） neutral in style（中立性）(2) Two feature of native words frequent in use据现代语言学家的统计，英语中目前所占本族词的数量有多少? 50,000 to 60,000他们的来源是(Anglo_Saxon tongue )(3)什么叫borrow
6、ed words? 1) words taken over from foreign languages are know as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.2) It is estimated that English borrowings constitute 80 percent of the modern English vocabulary3) The English language has vast debts .In any dictionarysome 80% of the entrie
7、s are borrowed.Chapter 2 The development of the English vocabulary1. Old English属于Indo-European language family（印欧语系） Germanic（日耳曼语系），与德语最相似.2. History1）Old English （450-1150） a. The first people known to inhabit（居住）England were Celts，the language was Celtic（凯尔特语）.b. The second language was the Lati
8、n（拉丁语）of the Roman Legions（罗马军队）. Roman invasion Anglo-Saxon三个事件 The introduction of Christianity 拉丁文的涌入Viking invasion（北欧海盗）and Scandinavian斯堪的纳维亚语传入2） Middle English （1150-1500）The Norman Conquest started a continual flow of French words into English上层人物13世纪末English gradually come back into public
9、 areas.在英语发展过程在哪个阶段出现三语鼎立的现象？ French, Latin, English in Middle English period easel, port, freight, 出现于英语发展的哪个阶段，属于哪一种外来词的引入？ Middle English , Dutch（带来了2500 个词汇）3） Modern English （1500-up to now） The Renaissance（文艺复兴）: Latin and Greek were recognized as the languages of the Western worlds great lite
10、rary heritage（文化遗产）.The Industrial Revolution（工业革命）: 17世纪中期With the growth of colonization（殖民化）, British tentacles（魔爪） began a stretching out of to every corner of the globe， thus enabling English to absorb（吸收）words from all major languages of the world. 十六世纪，有一种新工业Printing出现对词汇的发展产生重要的影响,这导致sound a
11、nd form 出现concord（一致）和standardization第二次世界大战以后，大量外来词进入英语中，如：Mao jackets , black belt , kongfu 标准化Inflectional language屈折语 Analytical language分析语Three main sources（来源）new wordsThe rapid development of modern science and technologySocial,economic and political changes The influence of other cultures a
12、nd languagesThree modes of vocabulary development Creation the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely roots,affixes and other elements. Semantic change - an old form which take on a new meaning to meet the new need. Borrowing to take in words from other languages.（particularly
13、 in earlier time）Chapter 3 The structure of English words1. Morpheme A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. （The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.） Free can stand alone as a word/ independent of other morphemesType prefixation 前缀Lexical derivational affixation
14、Bound added to other morphemes suffixation 后缀 Grammatical inflectional2. Morph A morpheme must be realized by discrete（离散的）units. These actual spoken minimal carriers of meaning are morphs.Monomorphenic words morphemes are realized by single morphs.Allomorph（词素变体） Some morphemes are realized by more
15、 than one morph according to their position. 3. Root A root is the basic form of a word,which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. （What remains of a word after the removal of all affixes.） Stem a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. Base refers to a form to which af
16、fixes of any kind can be added.It can be a root or stem.a stem may consist of a single root or two roots and a root plus a affix.a stem can be a root or a form bigger than a root.请加以区别下面两个词的特征: nation , dict 加以理论的分析(1) Both nation and dict belong to roots, nation is free root, which can function alo
17、ne in a sentence, (2) Nation as a free root, has complete meaning, when both prefixes and suffixes attached to it are removed, nation as a free root, still remains Dict is a bound root, which can not function alone grammatically , dict carries the fundamental meaning of words, dict has to combine wi
18、th the other morphemes to create new words , for example , dictionary , contradiction .Chapter 4 Word-formation in English 1. There are four main types of word-formation in English.(1) Affixation （prefixation and suffixation）构词能力最强Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding w
19、ord forming or derivational affixes to stems.(2) Compounding/Composition 复合法 a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.eg: blue-stocking 有教养的女子 moonwalk太空步 toothache牙痛 deadline截止期限brainwashing洗脑 stockholder股东 outbreak 爆发 sit-
20、in静坐罢工 going-over 苛斥；毒打；严格的检查 crybaby爱哭的人；宝贝 cleaning lady清洁女工Free phrase: son-in-law女婿 milk-and-water无味的；软弱无力的 forget-me-not勿忘草aspectscompoundfree phrasephonetic语音featuresStress on the first elementStress on the second element（元素）Semantic featuresEvery compound should express a single idea just as
21、one word.Grammatical featuresA compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence ,for example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective. In adjective-noun compounds, the adjective element cannot take inflectional suffixes.(3) Conversion转换法is the formation of new words by converting words of one
22、class to another class. These words are new only in a grammatical sense. The most productive is between nouns and verbs. It is also known as functional shift.full conversion It can take an indefinit article(不定冠词) or - (e)s to indicate singular or plural number. e.g. blacka black drinkable drinkables
23、partial conversion must be used together with definite articles. e.g. richthe rich 2. Other types of word-formation (1) Clipping/shortening shorten a longer word by cutting a part of the origin and using what remains instead.quake（earthquake） dorm（dormitory） pop（popular music） flu（influenza）(2) Acro
24、nymy首字母缩略法joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special phrases and technical terms eg: VOA-Voice of America TV-television(3) Blending混合法is the word formation by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word.绝大多数blending 都是nouns eg: smog（烟
25、雾）from smoke+fog telex（电传机）from teleprinter+exchange Medicare（医疗保险）from medical+care lunarnaut（登月宇航员）from lunar+astronaut(4) Back-formation逆构词法 is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion删除of a supposed affix. donate（donation） loaf（loafer） babysit （babysitter） laze （laz
26、y）Chapter 5 Word meaning1. Analytical(referential)分析的 Reference the relationship between language and the world. Operational(contextual)运用到具体场景中 Concept which beyond language is the result of human cognition reflecting the objective world in the human mindSense1）sense denotes the relationships insid
27、e the language. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.2）Since the sense of an expression is not a thing, it is often difficult to say what sort of identity it is. It is also an abstraction.3）Every word that has meaning ha
28、s sense (not every word has reference)2. Motivation（理据） accounts for the connection between the linguistic（语言学的）symbol and its meaning.non-motivated Onomatopoeic（拟声的） the words whose sounds suggest their meaning. eg :bang， ping-pang， crow by cocksMorphological（形态学的） Compounds and derived words are m
29、ulti-morphemic words and the meaning of many words are the sum total of the morphemes combined. Motivated eg: airmail means to “mail by air”Semantic（语义学的）refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual概念上的meaning of a word.eg：at the foot of mountain, the mouth of riverEtymological（词源学的
30、）The history of the word explains the meaning of the word. 3.Types of meaning Grammatical 语法 refer to that part of the meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships Conceptual 概念 the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core核心of word-meaning.Lexical 词汇 Connotative
31、内涵意义 eg：Mother a female parent loveAssociative联想 Stylistic语体 1)formal 2)neutral 3)informal Affective/Emotive appreciative and pejorative Collocative固定搭配Chapter 6 Sense relations1. Polysemy一词多义（1）定义：polysemy is a common feature peculiar to all natural languages. the same word may have two or more dif
32、ferent meanings.e.g. The word “flight” may mean “passing through the air”， “power of flying”， “air of journey”， etc. Diachronic approach eg : face 具有一个primary meaning也有很多的derived meanings（2）Two approaches harvest意思是time of cutting, time of harvest,现在是指yield of grain or foodSynchronic approach Radiat
33、ion 辐射 像车轮式一样进行发展的语义e.g. face, neck（3）Two process of development Concatenation meaning “linking together”串联2. Homonymy（1）定义：Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical（完全相同的）both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. Perfect Homonyms同音同形异
34、义词e.g. bear忍受；熊 ball 球；舞会（2）Types Homographs同形异义e.g. minute分钟；微小的 Homophones同音异义（most common）e.g. dear/dear 亲爱的；昂贵的 meat/meetChange in sound and spelling（3）Origins of Homonyms Borrowing Shortening3.Synonymy同义词（1）定义：Synonyms are words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly t
35、he same in meaning. Absolute regioned地域（British EnglishAmerican English） （2）Types stylistics degreeRelative（Near） shades of meaning emotive range collocative搭配 Borrowing（the most important source）（3）Sources of Synonyms Dialects方言and regional English eg: railway （BrE）; railroad （AmE） 来源 Figurative比喻的
36、，象征的and euphemistic委婉的use of words Coincidence一致；巧合with idiomatic expressions习惯用语 Difference in denotation意义（4）Discrimination of Synonyms Difference in connotation内涵 Difference in application应用4.Antonymy反义词（1）定义：Antonymy is concerned with semantic语义学的opposition. Contradictory/complementary 绝对反义 eg:
37、alive dead，male female不可以用形容词比较级, 程度副词加以修饰（2）Types Contrary/ gradable/comparision eg: hot （warm,cool） cold Relative (depend on each other) eg: parent child , sell buy , predecessor 前辈 successor继承者（3）Characteristics 1）Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.2）A word which has more
38、 than one meaning can have more than one antonym.3）Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion.4）Contrary terms are gradable antonyms,differing in degree of intensity,so each has its own corresponding opposition.（4）Use。 Antonyms have various practical uses and have long proved helpful and valuable in defi
39、ning the meanings of words.fresh bread stale bread， fresh air stuff air， fresh flower faded flower， fresh look tired look。 Antonyms are useful to express economically the opposition of a particular thought， often for the sake of contrast.。 Many idioms are formed with antonyms.eg : Rain and shine无论如何
40、 Weal and woe祸福 Friend and foe敌友 Now or never机不可失 Thick and thin不顾艰难险阻High and low到处 Give an take互让，平等 Easy come,easy go. 来的易，去得快 More haste,less speed. 欲速则不达 United we stand， divided we fall.团结则存，分裂则亡5.Hyponymy 包涵（1）定义：Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. That is to say, the
41、meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. superordinate（上义词） general（2）Types hyponyms / sobordinate（下义词）specificeg : furnature 是superordinate ; desk, table, chair, cupboard是furniture的subordinate words或者称作hyponymsChapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning Extension/gene
42、ralization is a term referring to the widening of meaning. eg : Picture painting include “drawings” and even “photographs”Sandwitch 最早是指三明治这个家族, 但是现在是指一切快餐类食品 Narrowing /specialization is a term referring to the shrinking of meaning.1. Types eg : wife : woman a married woman ；the Pennisular : 专指利比利亚
43、半岛Degradation/ pejoration It is a process whereby words of good origin fall into ill reputation or non-affective 降格 words come to be used in derogatory sense.eg : lust : pleasure sexual desirex Elevation/ ameliration refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of 升格 importance.eg : nice: Ignorant foolish, delightful, pleasant Euphemism 委婉语 Shortening eg : Gold for gold medal linguistic Factors Borrowing eg : Deer / animal / beast2. Causes
