1、每个学术研究者必须经历的一道关卡，就是Research Proposal的写作。它大致对应中文里的“开题报告”、“选题报告”、“研究报告”，是一项研究开始之前的提纲、规划和陈述；既是为了帮助自己梳理文献、整理思路、廓清方向，也常常是写给相关他人的说明：研究动机和意义何在？可能有何成果？为什么它值得你的资助/认可/支持/批准？不知道是否可以说，好的proposal是研究成功的一半。但实际而功利的说，如果你的proposal很烂，可能根本就不会有开始研究的机会。How to write a research proposal?能否写出漂亮的proposal，本质上取决于你对研究的思考深度和专业水准
2、。但形式也很重要。英文的Research Proposal自有一套“八股”。程式化和结构化的好处就在于，可以让读者直接集中注意到最本质的内容上，而不是为形式分神。对于非英语native speaker的我们，如何理解英文学术世界的规范或曰思维定势，也是写作proposal之前必备的背景知识。下面这篇流传甚广的Research Proposal写作指南，言简意赅，颇具启发，对我自己的写作有所帮助，也希望能给更多的学界同仁带来便利。点击这里，查看更多关于RESEARCH PROPOSAL以及GRANT PROPOSAL、PROJECT PROPOSAL写作的网上资源文章作者Paul T. P. W
3、ong, Ph.D., C.Psych. (Research Director, Graduate Program in Counselling Psychology. Trinity Western University Langley, BC, Canada). 题为：How to Write a Research Proposal. 全文转载如下：Most students and beginning researchers do not fully understand what a research proposal means, nor do they understand its
4、 importance. To put it bluntly, ones research is only as a good as ones proposal. An ill-conceived proposal dooms the project even if it somehow gets through the Thesis Supervisory Committee. A high quality proposal, on the other hand, not only promises success for the project, but also impresses yo
5、ur Thesis Committee about your potential as a researcher.A research proposal is intended to convince others that you have a worthwhile research project and that you have the competence and the work-plan to complete it. Generally, a research proposal should contain all the key elements involved in th
6、e research process and include sufficient information for the readers to evaluate the proposed study.Regardless of your research area and the methodology you choose, all research proposals must address the following questions: What you plan to accomplish, why you want to do it and how you are going
7、to do it.The proposal should have sufficient information to convince your readers that you have an important research idea, that you have a good grasp of the relevant literature and the major issues, and that your methodology is sound.The quality of your research proposal depends not only on the qua
8、lity of your proposed project, but also on the quality of your proposal writing. A good research project may run the risk of rejection simply because the proposal is poorly written. Therefore, it pays if your writing is coherent, clear and compelling.This paper focuses on proposal writing rather tha
9、n on the development of research ideas.TITLE:It should be concise and descriptive. For example, the phrase, “An investigation of . . .” could be omitted. Often titles are stated in terms of a functional relationship, because such titles clearly indicate the independent and dependent variables. Howev
10、er, if possible, think of an informative but catchy title. An effective title not only pricks the readers interest, but also predisposes him/her favourably towards the proposal.ABSTRACT:It is a brief summary of approximately 300 words. It should include the research question, the rationale for the s
11、tudy, the hypothesis (if any), the method and the main findings. Descriptions of the method may include the design, procedures, the sample and any instruments that will be used.INTRODUCTION:The main purpose of the introduction is to provide the necessary background or context for your research probl
12、em. How to frame the research problem is perhaps the biggest problem in proposal writing.If the research problem is framed in the context of a general, rambling literature review, then the research question may appear trivial and uninteresting. However, if the same question is placed in the context
13、of a very focused and current research area, its significance will become evident.Unfortunately, there are no hard and fast rules on how to frame your research question just as there is no prescription on how to write an interesting and informative opening paragraph. A lot depends on your creativity
14、, your ability to think clearly and the depth of your understanding of problem areas.However, try to place your research question in the context of either a current “hot” area, or an older area that remains viable. Secondly, you need to provide a brief but appropriate historical backdrop. Thirdly, p
15、rovide the contemporary context in which your proposed research question occupies the central stage. Finally, identify “key players” and refer to the most relevant and representative publications. In short, try to paint your research question in broad brushes and at the same time bring out its signi
16、ficance.The introduction typically begins with a general statement of the problem area, with a focus on a specific research problem, to be followed by the rational or justification for the proposed study. The introduction generally covers the following elements:1. State the research problem, which i
17、s often referred to as the purpose of the study.2. Provide the context and set the stage for your research question in such a way as to show its necessity and importance.3. Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth doing.4. Briefly describe the major issues an
18、d sub-problems to be addressed by your research.5. Identify the key independent and dependent variables of your experiment. Alternatively, specify the phenomenon you want to study.6. State your hypothesis or theory, if any. For exploratory or phenomenological research, you may not have any hypothese
19、s. (Please do not confuse the hypothesis with the statistical null hypothesis.)7. Set the delimitation or boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear focus.8. Provide definitions of key concepts. (This is optional.)LITERATURE REVIEW:Sometimes the literature review is incorporate
20、d into the introduction section. However, most professors prefer a separate section, which allows a more thorough review of the literature.The literature review serves several important functions:1. Ensures that you are not “reinventing the wheel”.2. Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwo
21、rk for your research.3. Demonstrates your knowledge of the research problem.4. Demonstrates your understanding of the theoretical and research issues related to your research question.5. Shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature information.6. Indicates your ability to integrate
22、and synthesize the existing literature.7. Provides new theoretical insights or develops a new model as the conceptual framework for your research.8. Convinces your reader that your proposed research will make a significant and substantial contribution to the literature (i.e., resolving an important
23、theoretical issue or filling a major gap in the literature).Most students literature reviews suffer from the following problems:* Lacking organization and structure* Lacking focus, unity and coherence* Being repetitive and verbose* Failing to cite influential papers* Failing to keep up with recent d
24、evelopments* Failing to critically evaluate cited papers* Citing irrelevant or trivial references* Depending too much on secondary sourcesYour scholarship and research competence will be questioned if any of the above applies to your proposal.There are different ways to organize your literature revi
25、ew. Make use of subheadings to bring order and coherence to your review. For example, having established the importance of your research area and its current state of development, you may devote several subsections on related issues as: theoretical models, measuring instruments, cross-cultural and g
26、ender differences, etc.It is also helpful to keep in mind that you are telling a story to an audience. Try to tell it in a stimulating and engaging manner. Do not bore them, because it may lead to rejection of your worthy proposal. (Remember: Professors and scientists are human beings too.)METHODS:T
27、he Method section is very important because it tells your Research Committee how you plan to tackle your research problem. It will provide your work plan and describe the activities necessary for the completion of your project.The guiding principle for writing the Method section is that it should co
28、ntain sufficient information for the reader to determine whether methodology is sound. Some even argue that a good proposal should contain sufficient details for another qualified researcher to implement the study.You need to demonstrate your knowledge of alternative methods and make the case that y
29、our approach is the most appropriate and most valid way to address your research question.Please note that your research question may be best answered by qualitative research. However, since most mainstream psychologists are still biased against qualitative research, especially the phenomenological
30、variety, you may need to justify your qualitative method.Furthermore, since there are no well-established and widely accepted canons in qualitative analysis, your method section needs to be more elaborate than what is required for traditional quantitative research. More importantly, the data collect
31、ion process in qualitative research has a far greater impact on the results as compared to quantitative research. That is another reason for greater care in describing how you will collect and analyze your data. (How to write the Method section for qualitative research is a topic for another paper.)
32、For quantitative studies, the method section typically consists of the following sections:1. Design -Is it a questionnaire study or a laboratory experiment? What kind of design do you choose?2. Subjects or participants Who will take part in your study ? What kind of sampling procedure do you use?3.
33、Instruments What kind of measuring instruments or questionnaires do you use? Why do you choose them? Are they valid and reliable?4. Procedure How do you plan to carry out your study? What activities are involved? How long does it take?RESULTS:Obviously you do not have results at the proposal stage.
34、However, you need to have some idea about what kind of data you will be collecting, and what statistical procedures will be used in order to answer your research question or test you hypothesis.DISCUSSION:It is important to convince your reader of the potential impact of your proposed research. You
35、need to communicate a sense of enthusiasm and confidence without exaggerating the merits of your proposal. That is why you also need to mention the limitations and weaknesses of the proposed research, which may be justified by time and financial constraints as well as by the early developmental stag
36、e of your research area.Common Mistakes in Proposal Writing1. Failure to provide the proper context to frame the research question.2. Failure to delimit the boundary conditions for your research.3. Failure to cite landmark studies.4. Failure to accurately present the theoretical and empirical contri
37、butions by other researchers.5. Failure to stay focused on the research question.6. Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research.7. Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues.8. Too much rambling going “all over the map” without a clear
38、sense of direction. (The best proposals move forward with ease and grace like a seamless river.)9. Too many citation lapses and incorrect references.10. Too long or too short.11. Failing to follow the APA style.12. Slopping writing.http:/ players），参考最相关和最有代表性的论文。总之，把你的研究问题放到一个大的背景下，但同时体现出他的重要性。引言一般以
39、对该领域的简单描述开始，同时关注某一特定的研究问题，接下来是拟定研究的基本原理。引言部分通常包含以下内容：1. 描述该研究问题，一般也叫研究目的；2. 为你的研究问题提供背景，设定其范围，以体现出它的必要性和重要性；3. 说明你研究问题的理论依据，要清楚的指出为什么该研究是值得去做的；4. 简要描述该研究要解决的主要及次要问题；5. 确定你试验中关键的独立或相关变量。或者，明确说明你想要研究的现象；6. 阐述你的假说或理论，如有的话。对于探索性或现象解释型的研究，你可能不会有任何假说。（请不要混淆假说和统计学上的零假设）；7.设定你研究计划的局限或边界，以提供一个清晰的研究重点；8. 给关键概
40、念下定义 （此项为可选）；文献综述：文献综述有时也包括到简介部分。然而，大多数教授更喜欢一个单独的部分，这样可以更全面地回顾相关文献。文献综述有以下一些重要功能：1. 确保你不是“重新发明车轮”（意即不是重复前人已有的成果）；2. 向奠定该研究基础的前人致谢；3. 说明你对该研究问题的了解；4. 阐述你对该问题相关的理论和研究的理解；5. 展现你对相关文献资料的批判评价能力；6 显示你整合现有文献的能力；7. 提供新的理论见解或发展一种新的模式，作为你研究的概念框架；8. 向你的读者证明该研究计划会对现有文献做出重要的和实质性的贡献。（比如，解决一个重要的理论问题或者填补一个主要空白）；大多数
41、学生的文献综述都有以下问题：* 缺乏组织结构* 缺乏重点，整体性和连贯性* 冗长重复* 没有引用重要文献* 没有跟上最新进展* 没有对所引文献进行批判分析* 引用了不相关或不重要的文献* 过多依赖二手资料如果你的研究计划里有任何上述问题，你的学术和研究能力就会受到质疑。有多种方式来组织文献综述。利用副标题来使你的综述有序和连贯。比如，在展示了你研究领域的重要性和最新研究进展之后，你可能会用几个小节来探讨相关问题，如理论模型，测定手段，跨文化和性别差异，等等。同时也要牢记你是在向听众讲一个故事。要试着以一种具有启发性的方式讲述，而不要使他们感到厌烦，因为这可能导致你的计划被否决。（记住，教授和科
42、学家们也是人。）方法： 方法部分非常重要，因为它会告诉研究委员会你准备如何来解决该研究问题。该部分要提出你的工作计划，并说明完成你项目所需的必要活动。 攥写方法部分的指导原则就是，应包含足够的信息，以便读者判断该方法是否有效可行。你也应该说明对其他可行方法的看法，以证明你的方法是解决该研究问题最适当和最有效的途径。表明你的研究问题能被定性的研究所回答。然而，大多数主流的心理学家仍然对定性研究抱有偏见，尤其是针对各种现象，因此你可能需要证明你的定性方法。而且在定性分析时，并没有一个好的而又被广泛接受的经典方法，所以你的方法部分就需要阐述得比传统定量研究所要求的更为详尽。更重要的是，相比定量研究，
43、数据的收集过程对定性研究的结果有更重大的影响。这是你需要更加小心地描述你将如何收集和分析数据的另一个原因。（如何攥写定性分析的方法部分需要另文讨论）对定量研究来说，方法部分通常包括以下内容：1. 研究设计-是问卷调查研究还是一个实验室的试验？你将选择什么样的设计？2. 研究对象或参与者谁将会参与你的研究？你将采用什么样的抽样程序？3. 研究手段你将采用什么样的测量手段或问卷？你为什么要选择这些方法？他们是否有效可靠？4. 研究步骤你打算如何开展研究？有哪些过程将被包括？需要多长时间？结果：很显然，在研究计划准备阶段你并没有研究结果。不过，你将收集哪些数据，什么样的统计方法将会用于解答你的研究问
44、题或验证你的假设，关于这些你应该有一些想法。讨论：向读者说明你研究的潜在影响很重要。在交流时你应该热情而自信，但又不能夸大该研究的价值。这就是为什么你还需要说明该研究的局限和不足，可能是因为时间和经济上的限制，也可能是因为你研究领域还是在发展初期。研究计划攥写时常犯的错误：1. 拟定研究问题时没有提供合适的背景；2. 没有给研究设定边界条件；3. 没有引用标志性的研究；4. 未准确指出其他研究者在理论和实践上做出的贡献；5. 未能持续关注所研究的问题；6. 未能给该研究提出一个条理分明和有说服力的论据；7. 在次要问题上太多细节，在主要问题上却细节不足；8. 过于松散，都是泛泛而谈，没有明确的方向。（好的研究建议方向明确，展开论述从容不迫，就像一条连续的河流）；9. 过多的引用笔误和错误引用；10.太过冗长或过于简短；11. 没有遵循美国心理学会写作格式规范（APA style） ；12. Slopping writing.？
