1、本科毕业论文(设计)外文翻译题目论财务报表列报的改革专业会计学外文题目ECONOMICCONSEQUENCESOFFINANCIALREPORTINGANDDISCLOSUREREGULATIONAREVIEWANDSUGGESTIONFORFUTURERESEARCH外文出处SOCAILSCIENCERESEARCHNETWORK外文作者CHRISTIANLEUZPETERDWYSOCKI1原文ECONOMICCONSEQUENCESOFFINANCIALREPORTINGANDDISCLOSUREREGULATIONAREVIEWANDSUGGESTIONSFORFUTURERESEARC
2、HABSTRACTTHISPAPERSURVEYSTHETHEORETICALANDEMPIRICALLITERATUREONTHEECONOMICCONSEQUENCESOFFINANCIALREPORTINGANDDISCLOSUREREGULATIONWEINTEGRATETHEORETICALANDEMPIRICALSTUDIESFROMACCOUNTING,ECONOMICS,FINANCEANDLAWINORDERTOCONTRIBUTETOTHECROSSFERTILIZATIONOFTHESEFIELDSWEPROVIDEANORGANIZINGFRAMEWORKTHATIDE
3、NTIFIESFIRMSPECIFICMICROLEVELANDMARKETWIDEMACROLEVELCOSTSANDBENEFITSOFFIRMSREPORTINGANDDISCLOSUREACTIVITIESANDTHENUSETHISFRAMEWORKTODISCUSSPOTENTIALCOSTSANDBENEFITSOFREGULATINGTHESEACTIVITIESANDTOORGANIZETHEKEYINSIGHTSFROMTHELITERATUREOURSURVEYHIGHLIGHTSIMPORTANTUNANSWEREDQUESTIONSANDCONCLUDESWITHNU
4、MEROUSSUGGESTIONSFORFUTURERESEARCHTHREERECENTTRENDSHAVESPURREDTHEDEBATEABOUTFINANCIALREPORTINGANDDISCLOSUREREGULATIONSAROUNDTHEWORLDFIRST,INTERNATIONALFINANCIALCRISESANDCORPORATESCANDALSOFTENBRINGABOUTSECURITIESREGULATIONREFORMSANDGREATERREPORTINGANDDISCLOSUREREQUIREMENTSTHEASIANFINANCIALCRISISOF199
5、7,THEENRONDEBACLEINTHEUS,ANDTHERECENTCREDITMARKETCRISISAREBUTAFEWIMPORTANTEXAMPLESINTHEAFTERMATHOFTHESEEVENTS,REGULATORSANDPOLICYMAKERSHAVECALLEDFORIMPROVEDCORPORATETRANSPARENCY,INCREASEDSCRUTINYANDOFTENENACTEDSIGNIFICANTCHANGESTOACCOUNTINGANDDISCLOSUREREQUIREMENTSANDREGULATIONSSECOND,STOCKEXCHANGES
6、ANDACCOUNTINGSTANDARDSBODIESFROMNUMEROUSCOUNTRIESAROUNDTHEWORLDHAVEADOPTEDINTERNATIONALFINANCIALREPORTINGSTANDARDSIFRSTOACHIEVETHESTATEDGOALOF“HARMONIZATION”AND“CONVERGENCE”OFACCOUNTINGRULESTHIRD,BOTHTHEDEBATEABOUTTHECOMPETITIVENESSOFUSCAPITALMARKETSANDTHEINCREASINGINTERNATIONALIZATIONOFCAPITALMARKE
7、TSHIGHLIGHTSECURITIESREGULATIONASAGLOBALISSUE1DESPITETHEIMPORTANCEOFCORPORATETRANSPARENCYASARECURRINGPOLICYISSUE,THEREISILIMITEDRESEARCHONTHECOSTSANDBENEFITSOFFINANCIALREPORTINGANDDISCLOSUREREGULATION,IIFEWATTEMPTSTOSYSTEMATICALLYORGANIZETHEKEYECONOMICPRINCIPLESOFANDEMPIRICALFINDINGSONTHISTYPEOFREGU
8、LATION,ANDIIILITTLEGUIDANCEONIMPORTANTUNANSWEREDQUESTIONSABOUTTHEECONOMIC2CONSEQUENCESOFREGULATINGFINANCIALREPORTINGANDCORPORATEDISCLOSURETHISPAPERREVIEWSTHETHEORETICALANDEMPIRICALLITERATUREONTHEECONOMICCONSEQUENCESOFFINANCIALREPORTINGANDDISCLOSUREREGULATION,WITHAPARTICULAREMPHASISONRECENTRESEARCHAD
9、VANCESINTHELITERATUREWEINTEGRATETHEORETICALANDEMPIRICALSTUDIESFROMACCOUNTING,ECONOMICS,FINANCEANDLAWINORDERTOCONTRIBUTETOTHECROSSFERTILIZATIONOFTHESEFIELDSGENERALLYSPEAKING,OURSURVEYFINDSAPAUCITYOFEVIDENCEONMARKETWIDEANDAGGREGATEECONOMICANDSOCIALCONSEQUENCESOFREPORTINGANDDISCLOSUREREGULATION,RATHERT
10、HANTHECONSEQUENCESOFINDIVIDUALFIRMSACCOUNTINGANDDISCLOSURECHOICESUNTILRECENTLY,MOSTOFTHELITERATUREFOCUSESONMANAGERSVOLUNTARYDISCLOSUREANDFINANCIALREPORTINGCHOICES3THESESTUDIESPROVIDEIMPORTANTINSIGHTSINTOTHENATUREOFTHEPRIVATECOSTSANDBENEFITSOFVOLUNTARYREPORTINGANDDISCLOSURECHOICESAND,INTHISSENSE,PROV
11、IDEAMICROFOUNDATIONHOWEVER,THESESTUDIESPROVIDEFEWINSIGHTSINTOTHEOVERALLDESIRABILITY,ECONOMICEFFICIENCYORAGGREGATEOUTCOMESOFREPORTINGANDDISCLOSUREREGULATIONONTHEOTHERHAND,THEREHASBEENARECENTFLURRYOFSTUDIESEXAMININGINTERNATIONALDIFFERENCESINTHEEFFECTSOFDIFFERENTREGULATORYREGIMESANDONTHEECONOMICCONSEQU
12、ENCESOFREGULATORYCHANGES,SUCHASREGULATIONFAIRDISCLOSUREANDTHESARBANESOXLEYACTWESYNTHESIZETHEINSIGHTSOFTHESESTUDIESINOURSURVEYHOWEVER,THEREARESTILLMANYUNANSWEREDQUESTIONS,ESPECIALLY,IWHYDISCLOSUREREGULATIONISSOPERVASIVEIITHEDYNAMICSANDIIITHEPROCESSOFREGULATIONIVTHEREALANDMACROECONOMICCONSEQUENCESOFDI
13、SCLOSUREREGULATION,VITSCOMPLEMENTARITIESWITHOTHERREGULATIONS,VIITSOPTIMALFORMGIVENIMPERFECTENFORCEMENTANDVIITHEISSUEOFREGULATORYCOMPETITIONWEDISCUSSTHESEOPENQUESTIONSANDCONCLUDEOURSURVEYWITHSUGGESTIONSFORFUTURERESEARCHINTHESEAREAS2THEORYOFCORPORATEDISCLOSUREANDREPORTINGREGULATIONINTHISSECTION,WEOUTL
14、INETHETHEORYOFFIRMSDISCLOSURECHOICESANDTHETHEORYOFDISCLOSUREREGULATIONWEUSEAFRAMEWORKTHATFIRSTIDENTIFIESPOSSIBLEFIRMSPECIFICMICROECONOMICANDMARKETWIDEMACROECONOMICCOSTSANDBENEFITSOFFIRMSDISCLOSUREACTIVITIESINTHEABSENCEOFREGULATIONWETHENOVERLAYTHEPOTENTIALEFFECTSOFDISCLOSUREANDREPORTINGREGULATIONFINA
15、LLY,WEGIVESOMECONSIDERATIONTOTHEQUESTIONOFHOWTOMANDATEDISCLOSURES,IE,THEMECHANISMANDATWHICHLEVEL,ANDHOWTOENFORCETHERULESBOTHFIRMSPECIFICANDMARKETWIDEEFFECTSARERELEVANTFOREVALUATINGTHEECONOMICCONSEQUENCESOFREPORTINGANDDISCLOSUREREGULATION4THEFORMERAREIMPORTANTBECAUSETHECONFLUENCEOFFIRMSPECIFICCOSTSAN
16、DBENEFITSOFVOLUNTARYDISCLOSURES3DETERMINESWHETHERTHEYAREBENEFICIALTOTHEFIRM,IE,WHETHERTHEYINCREASEFIRMVALUEHOWEVER,THEMEREEXISTENCEOFNETBENEFITSTOVOLUNTARYDISCLOSUREISNOTSUFFICIENTTOJUSTIFYMANDATORYDISCLOSUREBECAUSE,INTHISCASE,AFIRMALREADYHASINCENTIVESTOVOLUNTARILYPROVIDEINFORMATIONEG,ROSS,1979THATI
17、S,PRECISELYINTHESITUATIONWHERETHEFIRMSPECIFICBENEFITSEXCEEDTHECOSTS,ITISNOTCLEARTHATWENEEDANYREGULATIONUNFORTUNATELY,DEBATESABOUTDISCLOSUREANDFINANCIALREPORTINGREGULATIONOFTENINCORRECTLYPOINTTOFIRMSPECIFICNETBENEFITSOFVOLUNTARYDISCLOSURECHOICESRATHERTHANFOCUSONTHEAGGREGATEEFFECTSOFREGULATIONHOWEVER,
18、FIRMSPECIFICEFFECTSOFDISCLOSURECANSTILLBERELEVANTINREGULATORYDEBATESIFITHEYINFORMUSABOUTTHENATUREANDFORMOFTHECOSTSANDBENEFITS,IITHEYTELLUSHOWMANDATEDDISCLOSURECANDIFFERENTIALLYAFFECTFIRMSINCLUDINGPOTENTIALWEALTHTRANSFERSAMONGFIRMS,ANDIIITHEYHELPUSPREDICTWHICHFIRMSARELIKELYTOENGAGEINAVOIDANCESTRATEGI
19、ESORMAYLOBBYFORORAGAINSTAPROPOSEDREGULATIONGIVENITSDIFFERENTIALEFFECTSONFIRMS21FIRMSPECIFICBENEFITSOFCORPORATEDISCLOSURESCURRENTTHEORIESTYPICALLYFOCUSONDIRECTCAPITALMARKETOUTCOMESOFFIRMSDISCLOSUREACTIVITIESTHESEMARKETOUTCOMESINCLUDELIQUIDITY,COSTOFCAPITALANDFIRMVALUATION5ARGUABLY,THEFIRMSPECIFICBENE
20、FITOFDISCLOSUREBESTSUPPORTEDBYTHEORYISTHEEFFECTONMARKETLIQUIDITYSEEALSO,VERRECCHIA,2001ATITSCOREISTHEINSIGHTTHATINFORMATIONASYMMETRIESAMONGINVESTORSINTRODUCEADVERSESELECTIONINTOSHAREMARKETSUNINFORMEDORLESSINFORMEDINVESTORSHAVETOWORRYABOUTTRADINGWITHPRIVATELYORBETTERINFORMEDINVESTORS6ASARESULT,UNINFO
21、RMEDINVESTORSLOWERINCREASETHEPRICEATWHICHTHEYAREWILLINGTOBUYSELLTOPROTECTAGAINSTTHELOSSESFROMTRADINGWITHANINFORMEDCOUNTERPARTIESTHEPRICEADJUSTMENTREFLECTSTHEPROBABILITYOFTRADINGWITHINFORMEDTRADERSANDTHEPOTENTIALINFORMATIONADVANTAGEOFTHESEINVESTORSTHISFORMOFPRICEPROTECTIONWHENBUYINGORSELLINGSHARESINT
22、RODUCESABIDASKSPREADINTOSECONDARYSHAREMARKETS7SIMILARLY,INFORMATIONASYMMETRYANDADVERSESELECTIONREDUCETHENUMBEROFSHARESTHATUNINFORMEDINVESTORSAREWILLINGTOTRADEBOTHEFFECTSREDUCETHELIQUIDITYOFSHAREMARKETS,IE,THEABILITYOFINVESTORSTOQUICKLYBUYORSELLSHARESATLOWCOSTANDWITHLITTLEPRICEIMPACTCORPORATEDISCLOSU
23、RECANMITIGATETHEADVERSESELECTIONPROBLEMANDINCREASEMARKETLIQUIDITYBYLEVELINGTHEPLAYINGFIELDAMONGINVESTORSVERRECCHIA,2001ITSEFFECTISTWOFOLDFIRST,MOREINFORMATIONINTHEPUBLICDOMAINMAKESITHARDERANDMORECOSTLYFORTRADERSTOBECOMEPRIVATELYINFORMEDASARESULT,FEWERINVESTORSARELIKELYTOBEPRIVATELYINFORMED,WHICHREDU
24、CESTHE4PROBABILITYOFTRADINGWITHABETTERINFORMEDCOUNTERPARTYSECOND,MOREDISCLOSUREREDUCESTHEUNCERTAINTYABOUTFIRMVALUE,WHICHINTURNREDUCESTHEPOTENTIALINFORMATIONADVANTAGETHATANINFORMEDTRADERMIGHTHAVEBOTHEFFECTSREDUCETHEEXTENTTOWHICHUNINFORMEDINVESTORSNEEDTOPRICEPROTECTANDHENCEINCREASEMARKETLIQUIDITYANIMP
25、ORTANTQUESTIONISWHETHERANDHOWTHESEEFFECTSMAPINTOFIRMVALUEORTHECOSTOFCAPITALILLIQUIDITYANDBIDASKSPREADSESSENTIALLYIMPOSEOUTOFPOCKETTRADINGCOSTSONINVESTORS,FORWHICHINVESTORSNEEDTOBECOMPENSATEDINEQUILIBRIUMTHUS,THEREQUIREDRATEOFRETURNOFASECURITYINCREASESBYITSPERPERIODTRANSACTIONCOSTSEG,CONSTANTINIDES,1
26、986AMIHUDANDMENDELSON,1986INADDITION,ADVERSESELECTIONCANDISTORTINVESTORSTRADINGDECISIONSANDRESULTININEFFICIENTANDHENCECOSTLYASSETALLOCATIONSFORWHICHINVESTORSNEEDTOBECOMPENSATED,LEADINGTOAHIGHERREQUIREDRATEOFRETURNORCOSTOFCAPITALGARLEANUANDPEDERSEN,2004MOREOVER,ADVERSESELECTIONPROBLEMSANDTRADINGCOSTS
27、INSECONDARYMARKETSFOLDBACKTOTHEPOINTATWHICHTHEFIRMISSUESSHARESINVESTORSANTICIPATETHATTHEYFACEPRICEPROTECTIONWHENTHEYSELLSHARESINTHEFUTUREANDHENCEREDUCETHEPRICEATWHICHTHEYAREWILLINGTOBUYSHARESINTHEINITIALSECURITIESOFFERINGEG,BAIMANANDVERRECCHIA,1996VERRECCHIA,2001ASARESULT,AFIRMMUSTISSUEMORESHARESTOR
28、AISEAFIXEDAMOUNTOFCAPITALTHUS,INFORMATIONASYMMETRYALSOTRANSLATESINTOAHIGHERCOSTOFRAISINGCAPITALINADDITION,INFORMATIONASYMMETRYANDADVERSESELECTIONINPRIMARYSHAREMARKETSCANREDUCETHEOFFERINGPRICEANDLEADTOUNDERPRICINGMYERSANDMAJLUF1984SHOWTHATAFIRMMAYBEWILLINGTOPASSUPPROFITABLEINVESTMENTOPPORTUNITIESIFTH
29、EFIRMHASTOISSUENEWSECURITIESTOFINANCETHEINVESTMENTANDINFORMATIONISASYMMETRICALLYDISTRIBUTEDMANAGERSANDOUTSIDEINVESTORS22FIRMSPECIFICCOSTSOFCORPORATEDISCLOSURESTHEDIRECTCOSTSOFCORPORATEDISCLOSURES,INCLUDINGTHEPREPARATION,CERTIFICATIONANDDISSEMINATIONOFACCOUNTINGREPORTS,ARECONCEPTUALLYSTRAIGHTFORWARDH
30、OWEVER,ASILLUSTRATEDBYTHERECENTDEBATEABOUTTHEECONOMICCONSEQUENCESOFSOXEG,WALLSTREETJOURNAL,2/10/2004RIBSTEIN,2005,THESEDIRECTCOSTSCANBESUBSTANTIAL,ESPECIALLYCONSIDERINGTHEOPPORTUNITYCOSTSOFTHOSEINVOLVEDINTHEDISCLOSUREPROCESSMOREOVER,FIXEDDISCLOSURECOSTSLEADTOECONOMIESOFSCALEANDCANMAKECERTAINDISCLOSU
31、RESPARTICULARLYBURDENSOMEFORSMALLERFIRMSDISCLOSURESCANALSOHAVEINDIRECTCOSTSBECAUSEINFORMATIONPROVIDEDTOCAPITALMARKET5PARTICIPANTSCANALSOBEUSEDBYOTHERPARTIESEG,COMPETITORS,LABORUNIONS,REGULATORS,TAXAUTHORITIES,ETCFOREXAMPLE,DETAILEDINFORMATIONABOUTLINEOFBUSINESSPROFITABILITYCANREVEALPROPRIETARYINFORM
32、ATIONTOCOMPETITORSEG,FELTHAMETAL,1992HAYESANDLUNDHOLM,1996THEFACTTHATOTHERPARTIESMAYUSEPUBLICINFORMATIONTOTHEDISCLOSINGFIRM,SDISADVANTAGECANDAMPENITSDISCLOSUREINCENTIVESVERRECCHIA,1983GALOR,1985HOWEVER,ACOMPETITIVETHREATMAYNOTALWAYSINDUCEFIRMSTOWITHHOLDINFORMATIONFOREXAMPLE,INCUMBENTFIRMSMAYDISCLOSE
33、INFORMATIONTODETERENTRYBYCOMPETITORSFIRMSMIGHTALSOSHAREINFORMATIONABOUTMARKETDEMANDTOPREVENTOVERPRODUCTIONINTHEINDUSTRYKIRBY,1988FURTHERMORE,COMPETITORSCANINFERINFORMATIONFROMTHEFACTTHATAFIRMDOESNOTMAKECERTAINDISCLOSURESTHUS,THERELATIONBETWEENDISCLOSURESANDPROPRIETARYCOSTSISCOMPLEXANDDEPENDSONTHETYP
34、EOFCOMPETITIONTHREATEG,VIVES,1984GALOR,1986VERRECCHIA,1990WAGENHOFER,1990FELTHAMETAL,1992INSUMMARY,THEREARENUMEROUSDIRECTANDINDIRECTREPORTINGANDDISCLOSURECOSTS,WHICHINTURNARELIKELYTOMAKETHEOPTIMALAMOUNTOFDISCLOSURESPECIFICTOEACHFIRM出处HTTP/PAPERSSSRNCOM/SOL3/PAPERSCFMABSTRACT_ID11053986译文财务报告和披露规则的经济
35、后果回顾和对未来研究的建议摘要本文研究关于财务报告和披露规则的经济后果的理论和实验资料。我们融合了会计、经济、融资和法律的理论和实验研究,希望有助于这些领域间的相互沟通。我们提供了定义具有企业特性(微观层面)和广泛市场特性(宏观层面),列示和披露企业活动的成本和收益的组织框架,然后,用这个框架来讨论规范这些活动以及从资料中组织这些关键内涵的潜在成本和收益。我们的研究强调重要的未被回答的问题以及总结对未来研究的多条建议。最近的三个趋势促使了有关财务报告和信息披露的争论。第一,金融危机和公司丑闻会引起证券改革和披露要求的提高。一些重要的例子如下1997年的亚洲金融危机,美国安然公司的倒闭以及最近的
36、信贷危机。这些事件发生以后,政策制定者要求提高公司的透明度,增强监视力度,并根据披露要求来改变重要的会计政策。第二,证券交易所和来自很多国家的会计准则,已经采用国际财务报告准则来达到会计准则“协调”和“接轨”的目标。第三,关于美国资本市场竞争力和资本市场日益国际化的争论是一个全球性的问题。尽管公司透明度是一个政策性问题,但研究也限制财务报告的成本和收益,以及披露管理;很少有人试图系统地研究这种类型的准则中重要的经济原理和实证发现;对那些有关财务报告和披露的经济后果中的重要问题很少有指导意见。一般来说,我们的调查发现关于市场范围和经济总体及报告和信息披露监管的社会后果,而不是个别公司的会计和信息
37、披露选择的后果的证据很少,直到最近,绝大多数的文献才专注于管理者自愿性信息披露和财务报告选择。这些研究提出了关于私人成本本质和自愿性报告和信息披露选择的好处的重要见解,并在此意义上,提供了微观基础。然而,这些研究关于总体可取性,经济效率或者报告和信息披露监管的总体结果几乎没有提出见解。另一方面,出现了在不同监管制度作用下国际研究分歧的混乱和监管变化的经济后果,如公平披露监管和萨班斯法案。我们在我们的调查中综合了这些研究。然而,仍然有许多悬而未决的问题,特别是,(I)为什么披露监管是这么普通;II动态性和III监管过程;IV披露监管的实际和宏观经济结果,V与其他法规的互补性,VI提供不完善执法的
38、最佳形式;和VII监管竞争的问题。我们讨论这些悬而未决的问题,并完成我们在这些领域与未来研究建议调查。公司法人关于披露和报告的管理。在这些领域,我们概述公司的理论“披露的选择和披露7规律的管理的理论。我们利用一种框架,首先定义一种公司特权的可能(微观经济)和市场宽度(宏观经济)对公司的好处”对披露活动管理的缺乏。然后我们覆盖了会计报告和披露潜在的作用。最终,我们关心的问题是如何授权披露,机制处在什么样的水平和如何实施准则。公司的独特性和市场宽度的作用与评估管理披露和报告的经济后果有关。前者比较重要是因为公司特有的支出和收入的汇合,自愿披露对公司有利的信息,看这些信息是否增加公司的价值。然而,仅
39、仅自愿披露纯收益不是强制披露的补充,因为假若这样,一个公司已经奖励自愿提供信息(罗丝等,1979)这样,就可以就定位公司的收入在哪里超过支出,没有明确指出需要的规则。不幸的,有关披露和报告错误的反映公司的利润的争论,是自愿披露的选择而不是准则效果的集合。然而,公司特有的披露与管理的争论仍然有关如果(1)他们披露自然的利润和支出,(2)他们告诉我们强制性的披露如何区别的影响公司的(包括关联方的交易),(3)他们也帮助我们预测公司可能进行战略或也会带到避免或者反对该规定提出了在企业中的不同作用。市场宽度影响公司,披露规则的缺乏都是相关的因为他们抓住了公司忽视披露的收益和支出或者没有完全被感知当他们
40、决定个人披露的决定。了解这些市场宽度和外部效应提供了收入和费用的基本定义和强制实施法人的披露和财务报告。目前的理论特别注重企业披露活动在资本市场的直接后果。这些市场后果包括流动资金、资本成本和公司价值。有证据表明,理论最支持的公司披露收益是影响市场流动性。它的核心是投资者间的信息不对称会是否进入股票市场做出不同选择。没有信息或信息不足的投资不得不担心他们与私人或消息灵通的投资者间的交易。结果是,没有信息的投资者会以他们为避免信息充裕的投资者间交易的损失而愿意以更低(更高)的价格买入(或卖出)。价格调节反应了与信息灵通的投资者间交易的可能性以及这些投资者拥有潜在信息的优势。这种在买卖股票时的价格
41、保护形式导致了股票二级市场出价询价的价差。同意地,信息不对称和选择多样性减少了信息不足的投资愿意交易股票的数量。这些影响都会降低股票市场的流动性。企业披露能够缓和多种选择问题并通过投资者间投资层次的划分增加市场流动性。效果是两面的。首先,公共领域的信息越多,交易者越难或者要花费越多的成本使自己获得更深层的信息。结果是,更少的投资者可能获得私密的信息,这会降低了信息充足的投资者间交易的可能性。其次,更多的披露会降低公司价值的不确定性,者反过来又会减少信息充足的投资者可能拥有的潜在信息优势。二者均会降低没有信息的投资者的价格保护程度,因此增加股票市场流动性。一个重要的问题是,这些影响是否以及如何映
42、入公司价值或资本成本。流动性差以及出价8询价的价差从根本上增加了投资者的交易成本,这是投资者必须在均衡中得到补偿的。因此,证券的投资回报率会因为每期的交易成本的增加而增加。此外,截然不同的选择会打乱投资者的交易决定且降低效率,因此,投资者需要得到补偿的资本分配成本导致了更高的投资回报率或者是资本成本。更重要的是,截然相反的选择问题和二级市场的交易成本又回到了公司发放股票的问题上。投资者希望在他们将来卖股票时有价格保护,因此,他们愿意降低在一级市场提供的股票的买入价。结果是,公司必须发行更多的股票来提高资本的固定数量。这样,信息不对称也演变成了提高资本成本的因素。此外,信息不对称和在二级股票市场
43、截然相反的选择会降低出价并导致价值低估。MYERS和MAJLUF1984提出如果不得不发放新的证券来为新的投资项目融资且管理者和外部投资者间存在信息不对称,公司可能宁愿错过有利可图的投资机会。企业披露的微观成本企业披露的直接成本包括准备费用、确认费用以及会计报表的宣传费用,在概念上都不复杂。然而最近关于经济后果的讨论表明这些直接成本可能是重大的,特别是考虑到披露过程中的相关的机会成本。此外,固定披露成本导致规模经济。由于向资本市场提供的信息也会被其他群体(如竞争者、工会、规则制定者及税收部门)所使用,因此披露还有间接成本。例如,关于业务部门例如的相信信息会向竞争者揭示私有信息。其他群体可能使用公司披露的公共信息中含有的不利信息这个事实会减弱它的披露意愿。然而,竞争威胁可能不会总是促使企业保留信息。例如,市场中的先进厂商可能会披露信息来威慑竞争者的进入。企业也可能共享关于市场需求的信息来避免行业内的生产过剩。而且,竞争者会根据企业没有披露的信息来推断信息。因此,披露和私有成本将的关系式复杂并且依赖于竞争的类型。总之,多种多样的、直接或间接的报告和披露成本反过来可能影响每个公司的披露数量。