1、外文题目PRINCIPLESOFECONOMICSANINTRODUCTORYVOLUME出处RODHAYSARCHIVEFORTHEHISTORYOFECONOMICTHOUGHTMCMASTERUNIVERSITYCANADA作者ALFREDMARSHALL原文THEGENERALARGUMENTOFTHEPRESENTBOOKSHOWSTHATANINCREASEINTHEAGGREGATEVOLUMEOFPRODUCTIONOFANYTHINGWILLGENERALLYINCREASETHESIZE,ANDTHEREFORETHEINTERNALECONOMIESPOSSESSEDBY
2、SUCHAREPRESENTATIVEFIRMTHATITWILLALWAYSINCREASETHEEXTERNALECONOMIESTOWHICHTHEFIRMHASACCESSANDTHUSWILLENABLEITTOMANUFACTUREATALESSPROPORTIONATECOSTOFLABOURANDSACRIFICETHANBEFOREINOTHERWORDS,WESAYBROADLYTHATWHILETHEPARTWHICHNATUREPLAYSINPRODUCTIONSHOWSATENDENCYTODIMINISHINGRETURN,THEPARTWHICHMANPLAYSS
3、HOWSATENDENCYTOINCREASINGRETURNTHELAWOFINCREASINGRETURNMAYBEWORDEDTHUSANINCREASEOFLABOURANDCAPITALLEADSGENERALLYTOIMPROVEDORGANIZATION,WHICHINCREASESTHEEFFICIENCYOFTHEWORKOFLABOURANDCAPITALTHEREFOREINTHOSEINDUSTRIESWHICHARENOTENGAGEDINRAISINGRAWPRODUCEANINCREASEOFLABOURANDCAPITALGENERALLYGIVESARETUR
4、NINCREASEDMORETHANINPROPORTIONANDFURTHERTHISIMPROVEDORGANIZATIONTENDSTODIMINISHOREVENOVERRIDEANYINCREASEDRESISTANCEWHICHNATUREMAYOFFERTORAISINGINCREASEDAMOUNTSOFRAWPRODUCEIFTHEACTIONSOFTHELAWSOFINCREASINGANDDIMINISHINGRETURNAREBALANCEDWEHAVETHELAWOFCONSTANTRETURN,ANDANINCREASEDPRODUCEISOBTAINEDBYLAB
5、OURANDSACRIFICEINCREASEDJUSTINPROPORTIONFORTHETWOTENDENCIESTOWARDSINCREASINGANDDIMINISHINGRETURNPRESSCONSTANTLYAGAINSTONEANOTHERINTHEPRODUCTIONOFWHEATANDWOOL,FORINSTANCE,THELATTERTENDENCYHASALMOSTEXCLUSIVESWAYINANOLDCOUNTRY,WHICHCANNOTIMPORTFREELYINTURNINGTHEWHEATINTOFLOUR,ORTHEWOOLINTOBLANKETS,ANIN
6、CREASEINTHEAGGREGATEVOLUMEOFPRODUCTIONBRINGSSOMENEWECONOMIES,BUTNOTMANYFORTHETRADESOFGRINDINGWHEATANDMAKINGBLANKETSAREALREADYONSOGREATASCALETHATANYNEWECONOMIESTHATTHEYMAYATTAINAREMORELIKELYTOBETHERESULTOFNEWINVENTIONSTHANOFIMPROVEDORGANIZATIONINACOUNTRYHOWEVERINWHICHTHEBLANKETTRADEISBUTSLIGHTLYDEVEL
7、OPED,THESELATTERMAYBEIMPORTANTANDTHENITMAYHAPPENTHATANINCREASEINTHEAGGREGATEPRODUCTIONOFBLANKETSDIMINISHESTHEPROPORTIONATEDIFFICULTYOFMANUFACTURINGBYJUSTASMUCHASITINCREASESTHATOFRAISINGTHERAWMATERIALINTHATCASETHEACTIONSOFTHELAWSOFDIMINISHINGANDOFINCREASINGRETURNWOULDJUSTNEUTRALIZEONEANOTHERANDBLANKE
8、TSWOULDCONFORMTOTHELAWOFCONSTANTRETURNBUTINMOSTOFTHEMOREDELICATEBRANCHESOFMANUFACTURING,WHERETHECOSTOFRAWMATERIALCOUNTSFORLITTLE,ANDINMOSTOFTHEMODERNTRANSPORTINDUSTRIESTHELAWOFINCREASINGRETURNACTSALMOSTUNOPPOSEDINCREASINGRETURNISARELATIONBETWEENAQUANTITYOFEFFORTANDSACRIFICEONTHEONEHAND,ANDAQUANTITYO
9、FPRODUCTONTHEOTHERTHEQUANTITIESCANNOTBETAKENOUTEXACTLY,BECAUSECHANGINGMETHODSOFPRODUCTIONCALLFORMACHINERY,ANDFORUNSKILLEDANDSKILLEDLABOUROFNEWKINDSANDINNEWPROPORTIONSBUT,TAKINGABROADVIEW,WEMAYPERHAPSSAYVAGUELYTHATTHEOUTPUTOFACERTAINAMOUNTOFLABOURANDCAPITALINANINDUSTRYHASINCREASEDBYPERHAPSAQUARTERORA
10、THIRDINTHELASTTWENTYYEARSTOMEASUREOUTLAYANDOUTPUTINTERMSOFMONEYISATEMPTING,BUTADANGEROUSRESOURCEFORACOMPARISONOFMONEYOUTLAYWITHMONEYRETURNSISAPTTOSLIDEINTOANESTIMATEOFTHERATEOFPROFITONCAPITALWEMAYNOWSUMUPPROVISIONALLYTHERELATIONSOFINDUSTRIALEXPANSIONTOSOCIALWELLBEINGARAPIDGROWTHOFPOPULATIONHASOFTENB
11、EENACCOMPANIEDBYUNHEALTHYANDENERVATINGHABITSOFLIFEINOVERCROWDEDTOWNSANDSOMETIMESITHASSTARTEDBADLY,OUTRUNNINGTHEMATERIALRESOURCESOFTHEPEOPLE,CAUSINGTHEMWITHIMPERFECTAPPLIANCESTOMAKEEXCESSIVEDEMANDSONTHESOILANDSOTOCALLFORTHTHESTERNACTIONOFTHELAWOFDIMINISHINGRETURNASREGARDSRAWPRODUCE,WITHOUTHAVINGTHEPO
12、WEROFMINIMIZINGITSEFFECTSHAVINGTHUSBEGUNWITHPOVERTY,ANINCREASEINNUMBERSMAYGOONTOITSTOOFREQUENTCONSEQUENCESINTHATWEAKNESSOFCHARACTERWHICHUNFITSAPEOPLEFORDEVELOPINGAHIGHLYORGANIZEDINDUSTRYTHESEARESERIOUSPERILSBUTYETITREMAINSTRUETHATTHECOLLECTIVEEFFICIENCYOFAPEOPLEWITHAGIVENAVERAGEOFINDIVIDUALSTRENGTHA
13、NDENERGYMAYINCREASEMORETHANINPROPORTIONTOTHEIRNUMBERSIFTHEYCANFORATIMEESCAPEFROMTHEPRESSUREOFTHELAWOFDIMINISHINGRETURNBYIMPORTINGFOODANDOTHERRAWPRODUCEONEASYTERMSIFTHEIRWEALTHISNOTCONSUMEDINGREATWARS,ANDINCREASESATLEASTASFASTASTHEIRNUMBERSANDIFTHEYAVOIDHABITSOFLIFETHATWOULDENFEEBLETHEMTHENEVERYINCRE
14、ASEINTHEIRNUMBERSISLIKELYFORTHETIMETOBEACCOMPANIEDBYAMORETHANPROPORTIONATEINCREASEINTHEIRPOWEROFOBTAININGMATERIALGOODSFORITENABLESTHEMTOSECURETHEMANYVARIOUSECONOMIESOFSPECIALIZEDSKILLANDSPECIALIZEDMACHINERY,OFLOCALIZEDINDUSTRIESANDPRODUCTIONONALARGESCALEITENABLESTHEMTOHAVEINCREASEDFACILITIESOFCOMMUN
15、ICATIONOFALLKINDSWHILETHEVERYCLOSENESSOFTHEIRNEIGHBOURHOODDIMINISHESTHEEXPENSEOFTIMEANDEFFORTINVOLVEDINEVERYSORTOFTRAFFICBETWEENTHEM,ANDGIVESTHEMNEWOPPORTUNITIESOFGETTINGSOCIALENJOYMENTSANDTHECOMFORTSANDLUXURIESOFCULTUREINEVERYFORMNODOUBTDEDUCTIONMUSTBEMADEFORTHEGROWINGDIFFICULTYOFFINDINGSOLITUDEAND
16、QUIETANDEVENFRESHAIRBUTTHEREISINMOSTCASESSOMEBALANCEOFGOODTAKINGACCOUNTOFTHEFACTTHATANINCREASINGDENSITYOFPOPULATIONGENERALLYBRINGSWITHITACCESSTONEWSOCIALENJOYMENTSWEMAYGIVEARATHERBROADERSCOPETOTHISSTATEMENTANDSAYANINCREASEOFPOPULATIONACCOMPANIEDBYANEQUALINCREASEINTHEMATERIALSOURCESOFENJOYMENTANDAIDS
17、TOPRODUCTIONISLIKELYTOLEADTOAMORETHANPROPORTIONATEINCREASEINTHEAGGREGATEINCOMEOFENJOYMENTOFALLKINDSPROVIDEDFIRSTLY,ANADEQUATESUPPLYOFRAWPRODUCECANBEOBTAINEDWITHOUTGREATDIFFICULTY,ANDSECONDLYTHEREISNOSUCHOVERCROWDINGASCAUSESPHYSICALANDMORALVIGOURTOBEIMPAIREDBYTHEWANTOFFRESHAIRANDLIGHTANDOFHEALTHYANDJ
18、OYOUSRECREATIONFORTHEYOUNGTHEACCUMULATEDWEALTHOFCIVILIZEDCOUNTRIESISATPRESENTGROWINGFASTERTHANTHEPOPULATIONANDTHOUGHITMAYBETRUETHATTHEWEALTHPERHEADWOULDINCREASESOMEWHATFASTERIFTHEPOPULATIONDIDNOTINCREASEQUITESOFASTYETASAMATTEROFFACTANINCREASEOFPOPULATIONISLIKELYTOCONTINUETOBEACCOMPANIEDBYAMORETHANPR
19、OPORTIONATEINCREASEOFTHEMATERIALAIDSTOPRODUCTIONANDINENGLANDATTHEPRESENTTIME,WITHEASYACCESSTOABUNDANTFOREIGNSUPPLIESOFRAWMATERIAL,ANINCREASEOFPOPULATIONISACCOMPANIEDBYAMORETHANPROPORTIONATEINCREASEOFTHEMEANSOFSATISFYINGHUMANWANTSOTHERTHANTHENEEDFORLIGHT,FRESHAIR,ETCMUCHOFTHISINCREASEISHOWEVERATTRIBU
20、TABLENOTTOTHEINCREASEOFINDUSTRIALEFFICIENCYBUTTOTHEINCREASEOFWEALTHBYWHICHITISACCOMPANIEDANDTHEREFOREITDOESNOTNECESSARILYBENEFITTHOSEWHOHAVENOSHAREINTHATWEALTHANDFURTHER,ENGLANDSFOREIGNSUPPLIESOFRAWPRODUCEMAYATANYTIMEBECHECKEDBYCHANGESINTHETRADEREGULATIONSOFOTHERCOUNTRIES,ANDMAYBEALMOSTCUTOFFBYAGREA
21、TWARWHILETHENAVALANDMILITARYEXPENDITUREWHICHWOULDBENECESSARYTOMAKETHECOUNTRYFAIRLYSECUREAGAINSTTHISLASTRISK,WOULDAPPRECIABLYDIMINISHTHEBENEFITSTHATSHEDERIVESFROMTHEACTIONOFTHELAWOFINCREASINGRETURNINSPITEOFTHEAIDWHICHSUBSIDIARYINDUSTRIESCANGIVETOSMALLMANUFACTURES,WHEREMANYINTHESAMEBRANCHOFTRADEARECOL
22、LECTEDINONENEIGHBOURHOOD,THEYARESTILLPLACEDUNDERAGREATDISADVANTAGEBYTHEGROWINGVARIETYANDEXPENSIVENESSOFMACHINERYFORINALARGEESTABLISHMENTTHEREAREOFTENMANYEXPENSIVEMACHINESEACHMADESPECIALLYFORONESMALLUSEEACHOFTHEMREQUIRESSPACEINAGOODLIGHT,ANDTHUSSTANDSFORSOMETHINGCONSIDERABLEINTHERENTANDGENERALEXPENSE
23、SOFTHEFACTORYANDINDEPENDENTLYOFINTERESTANDTHEEXPENSEOFKEEPINGITINREPAIR,AHEAVYALLOWANCEMUSTBEMADEFORDEPRECIATIONINCONSEQUENCEOFITSBEINGPROBABLYIMPROVEDUPONBEFORELONGASMALLMANUFACTURERMUSTTHEREFOREHAVEMANYTHINGSDONEBYHANDORBYIMPERFECTMACHINERY,THOUGHHEKNOWSHOWTOHAVETHEMDONEBETTERANDCHEAPERBYSPECIALMA
24、CHINERY,IFONLYHECOULDFINDCONSTANTEMPLOYMENTFORITBUTNEXT,ASMALLMANUFACTURERMAYNOTALWAYSBEACQUAINTEDWITHTHEBESTMACHINERYFORHISPURPOSEITISTRUETHATIFTHEINDUSTRYINWHICHHEISENGAGEDHASBEENLONGESTABLISHEDONALARGESCALE,HISMACHINERYWILLBEWELLUPTOTHEMARK,PROVIDEDHECANAFFORDTOBUYTHEBESTINTHEMARKETINAGRICULTUREA
25、NDTHECOTTONINDUSTRIES,FORINSTANCE,IMPROVEMENTSINMACHINERYAREDEVISEDALMOSTEXCLUSIVELYBYMACHINEMAKERSANDTHEYAREACCESSIBLETOALL,ATANYRATEONTHEPAYMENTOFAROYALTYFORPATENTRIGHTBUTTHISISNOTTHECASEININDUSTRIESTHATAREASYETINANEARLYSTAGEOFDEVELOPMENTORARERAPIDLYCHANGINGTHEIRFORMSUCHASTHECHEMICALINDUSTRIES,THE
26、WATCHMAKINGINDUSTRYANDSOMEBRANCHESOFTHEJUTEANDSILKMANUFACTURESANDINAHOSTOFTRADESTHATARECONSTANTLYSPRINGINGUPTOSUPPLYSOMENEWWANTORTOWORKUPSOMENEWMATERIALINALLSUCHTRADESNEWMACHINERYANDNEWPROCESSESAREFORTHEGREATERPARTDEVISEDBYMANUFACTURERSFORTHEIROWNUSEEACHNEWDEPARTUREISANEXPERIMENTWHICHMAYFAILTHOSEWHI
27、CHSUCCEEDMUSTPAYFORTHEMSELVESANDFORTHEFAILUREOFOTHERSANDTHOUGHASMALLMANUFACTURERMAYTHINKHESEESHISWAYTOANIMPROVEMENT,HEMUSTRECKONONHAVINGTOWORKITOUTTENTATIVELY,ATCONSIDERABLERISKANDEXPENSEANDWITHMUCHINTERRUPTIONTOHISOTHERWORKANDEVENIFHESHOULDBEABLETOPERFECTIT,HEISNOTLIKELYTOBEABLETOMAKETHEMOSTOFITALA
28、RGEBUSINESSBUYSINGREATQUANTITIESANDTHEREFORECHEAPLYITPAYSLOWFREIGHTSANDSAVESONCARRIAGEINMANYWAYS,PARTICULARLYIFITHASARAILWAYSIDINGITOFTENSELLSINLARGEQUANTITIES,ANDTHUSSAVESITSELFTROUBLEANDYETATTHESAMETIMEITGETSAGOODPRICE,BECAUSEITOFFERSCONVENIENCESTOTHECUSTOMERBYHAVINGALARGESTOCKFROMWHICHHECANSELECT
29、ANDATONCEFILLUPAVARIEDORDERWHILEITSREPUTATIONGIVESHIMCONFIDENCEITCANSPENDLARGESUMSONADVERTISINGBYCOMMERCIALTRAVELLERSANDINOTHERWAYSITSAGENTSGIVEITTRUSTWORTHYINFORMATIONONTRADEANDPERSONALMATTERSINDISTANTPLACES,ANDITSOWNGOODSADVERTISEONEANOTHERTHEECONOMIESOFHIGHLYORGANIZEDBUYINGANDSELLINGAREAMONGTHECH
30、IEFCAUSESOFTHEPRESENTTENDENCYTOWARDSTHEFUSIONOFMANYBUSINESSESINTHESAMEINDUSTRYORTRADEINTOSINGLEHUGEAGGREGATESANDALSOOFTRADINGFEDERATIONSOFVARIOUSKINDS,INCLUDINGGERMANCARTELSANDCENTRALIZEDCOOPERATIVEASSOCIATIONSTHEYHAVEALSOALWAYSPROMOTEDTHECONCENTRATIONOFBUSINESSRISKSINTHEHANDSOFLARGECAPITALISTSWHOPU
31、TOUTTHEWORKTOBEDONEBYSMALLERMENNEXT,WITHREGARDTOTHEECONOMYOFSKILLEVERYTHINGTHATHASBEENSAIDWITHREGARDTOTHEADVANTAGESWHICHALARGEESTABLISHMENTHASINBEINGABLETOAFFORDHIGHLYSPECIALIZEDMACHINERYAPPLIESEQUALLYWITHREGARDTOHIGHLYSPECIALIZEDSKILLITCANCONTRIVETOKEEPEACHOFITSEMPLOYEESCONSTANTLYENGAGEDINTHEMOSTDI
32、FFICULTWORKOFWHICHHEISCAPABLE,ANDYETSOTONARROWTHERANGEOFHISWORKTHATHECANATTAINTHATFACILITYANDEXCELLENCEWHICHCOMEFROMLONGCONTINUEDPRACTICEBUTENOUGHHASALREADYBEENSAIDONTHEADVANTAGEOFDIVISIONOFLABOURANDWEMAYPASSTOANIMPORTANTTHOUGHINDIRECTADVANTAGEWHICHAMANUFACTURERDERIVESFROMHAVINGAGREATMANYMENINHISEMP
33、LOYMENT译文经济学原理一本介绍性的书本篇的一般论断表明以下两点第一，任何货物的总生产量之增加，一般会增大这样一个代表性企业的规模，因而就会增加它所有的内部经济；第二，总生产量的增加，常会增加它所获得的外部经济，因而使它能花费在比例上较以前为少的劳动和代价来制造货物。换言之，我俩可似概括地说自然在生产上所起的作用表现出报酬递减的倾向，而人类所起的作用则表现出报酬递增的倾向。报酬递减律可说明如下劳动和资本的增加，一般导致组织的改进，而组织的改进增大劳动和资本的使用效率。所以，在那些不是从事于农产品生产的产业里，劳动和资本的增加，一般使得报酬有超过比例的增加而且，这种组织的改进，趋于减少甚至超
34、过自然对农产品产量的增加所能增大的任何阻力。如果报酬递增律与报酬递咸律的作用互相抵消的话，我们就有报酬不变律，劳动和牺牲的增加，使产品刚好有同比例的增加。因为，报酬递增与报酬递减这两种倾向，不断地互相压制。例如，以小麦和羊毛的生产而论，报酬递减倾向在不能自由进口的古老国家里，差不多完全占有优势。如把小麦制成面粉，或是把羊毛制成毛毯，则总生产量的增加，就带来若干新的经济，但是不多因为面粉业和毛毯业的规模已经如此之大，以致它们所能获得的新的经济，恐怕是新发明的结果，而不会是组织改进的结果。然而，在毛毯业不过稍有发展的国家里，组织的改进也许是重要的；于是，就会发生这样的情况毛毯总产量的增加所减少的制
35、造上的困难，与它所增大的原料生产上的困难，在比例上恰好相等。在这种情况下，报酬递增律与报酬递减律的作用就会恰好互相抵消；毛毯生产就会符合报酬不变的规律。但是，在大多数原料费用无足轻重的较为精致的工业部门中，以及在大多数近代运输业中，报酬递增律所起的作用，差不多是无法抵抗的。报酬递增税明一方面是努力和牺牲的数量，与另一方面是产品的数量之间的关系。这些数量不能正确针算出来，因为生产方法的改变，需要机械，和需要各种薪的以及与以前不同的比例之不熟练和熟练的劳动。但是，从大体上来看，我们或可含糊地说工业中一定数量的劳动和资本所获得的生产量，在近二十年中增加了四分之一或三分之一。用货币来衡量费用和产量，是
36、一种诱人而危险的方法因为，货币支出与货币收入的比较，易于变成一种对资本利润率的估计。在属于同一生产部门的许多小型工业所集中的邻近地方，虽然辅助工业给予它们以帮助，但由于机械的日新月异和价格昂贵，这些小型工业仍然处于极大的不利地位。因为，在一家大工厂中，往往有许多为一样小用途而专门制造的高价的机器，每种机器都需要光线充足的地位，因而就使工厂的地租和一般费用增加颇大；即使不算利息和机器修理费用，由于机器恐怕不久就要加以改良的缘故，必须摊提很大的折旧费用。所以，一个小制造商必然要用手工或不完善的机械来做许多东西，虽然他知道使用专门机械，就能使这些东西做得较好和较廉，如果他能不断使用这种机械的话。但是
37、，其次，一个小制造商也许未必熟悉这合他的目的之最精良的机械。的确，如果他所从事的那种工业，早已实行大规模生产，只要他能有力购买市场上最精良的机械，他的机械就可完全达到标准。例如，在农业和棉纺业，机械的改良差不多专门由机器制造商来设计的；这种经过改良的机械人人可以买到，顶多不过是付给专利权使用费。但是，还处于发展的初期附段的工业，或是正在迅速改变形态的工业，如化学工业、制表工业和麻织及丝织工业的若干部门；以及为了满足某种新的欲望或使用某种新的原料而不断产生的许多行业，都不是这样情况。在上述这些行业之中，新的机械和新的制造方法大部分是制造商为了他们自己的用途而设计出来的。每种新的改变都是一种可能失
38、败的新试验那些取得成功的试验必须负担它们自己和其他试验的失败的费用；虽然一今小制造商会认为他知道怎样改良，但他必须考虑，只能尝试地实行这种改良，风险和费用都很大，而且对他别的工作也很有妨碍即使他能完成这种改良，他也不一定就能尽量加以利用大企业大量采购，因而价格低廉；它的运费支出是低的，而在运输上有许多方面也是节省的特别是它如有跌路侧线直通厂中的话。它往往大量销售，因而免掉麻烦；同时还可有根好的售价，因为它的存货很多，对顾客很方便，顾客能从这些存贷中先择，并配齐各种定货；同时，大企业的声誉使顾客对它有信心。它能以雇用旅行各地招来生意的人和其他方法来花巨额的广告费用；它的经销店供给它返地的贸易和私
39、人事情的可靠消息，而它自己的货物也互相宣传。极有组织的采购和销售的经济，是现在同一工业成行业中许多企业合并成为一个大的联合组织的倾向的主要原困之一；也是包括德国的卡特尔和集中的合作组织在内的各神同业联合的主要原因之一。这种经济还常常引起营业风险集中在把工作分给小资本家去做的大资本家的身上。其次，是关于技术的经济。大工厂因有力购买专门机械而具有各种利益，关于这些利益所说过的一切，同样适用于高度专门的技术。大工厂能够设法使它所雇用的每一个人，不断地从事他能胜任的最困难的工作，并且把他的工作范围缩小得使它能够获得由于长久不断的实践而产生的那种熟练和优良。但是，关于分工的利益，已经说得很多了，我们可转而研究，制造商因雇用许多人而得到的虽间接但重要的利益。
