1、WHATISACLUSTERCLUSTERSHAVELONGBEENPARTOFTHEECONOMICLANDSCAPE,WITHGEOGRAPHICCONCENTRATIONSOFTRADESANDCOMPANIESINPARTICULARINDUSTRIESDATINGBACKFORCENTURIESTHEINTELLECTUALANTECEDENTSOFCLUSTERSDATEBACKATLEASTTOMARSHALL1890/1920,WHOINCLUDEDAFASCINATINGCHAPTERONTHEEXTERNALITIESOFSPECIALIZEDINDUSTRIALLOCAT
2、IONSINHISPRINCIPLESOFECONOMICSACLUSTERISAGEOGRAPHICALLYPROXIMATEGROUPOFINTERCONNECTEDCOMPANIESANDASSOCIATEDINSTITUTIONSINAPARTICULARFIELD,LINKEDBYCOMMONALITIESANDCOMPLEMENTARITIESTHEGEOGRAPHICSCOPEOFCLUSTERSRANGESFROMAREGION,ASTATE,OREVENASINGLECITYTOSPANNEARBYORNEIGHBORINGCOUNTRIESEG,SOUTHERNGERMAN
3、YANDGERMANSPEAKINGSWITZERLANDTHEGEOGRAPHICSCOPEOFACLUSTERRELATESTOTHEDISTANCEOVERWHICHINFORMATIONAL,TRANSACTIONAL,INCENTIVE,ANDOTHEREFFICIENCIESOCCURMORETHANSINGLEINDUSTRIES,CLUSTERSENCOMPASSANARRAYOFLINKEDINDUSTRIESANDOTHERENTITIESIMPORTANTTOCOMPETITIONTHEYINCLUDE,FOREXAMPLE,SUPPLIERSOFSPECIALIZEDI
4、NPUTSSUCHASCOMPONENTS,MACHINERY,ANDSERVICESASWELLASPROVIDERSOFSPECIALIZEDINFRASTRUCTURECLUSTERSALSOOFTENEXTENDDOWNSTREAMTOCHANNELSORCUSTOMERSANDLATERALLYTOMANUFACTURERSOFCOMPLEMENTARYPRODUCTSORCOMPANIESRELATEDBYSKILLS,TECHNOLOGIES,ORCOMMONINPUTSMANYCLUSTERSINCLUDEGOVERNMENTALANDOTHERINSTITUTIONSEG,U
5、NIVERSITIES,THINKTANKS,VOCATIONALTRAININGPROVIDERS,STANDARDSSETTINGAGENCIES,TRADEASSOCIATIONSTHATPROVIDESPECIALIZEDTRAINING,EDUCATION,INFORMATION,RESEARCH,ANDTECHNICALSUPPORTMANYCLUSTERSINCLUDETRADEASSOCIATIONSANDOTHERCOLLECTIVEBODIESINVOLVINGCLUSTERMEMBERSFINALLY,FOREIGNFIRMSCANBEANDAREPARTOFCLUSTE
6、RS,BUTONLYIFTHEYMAKEPERMANENTINVESTMENTSINASIGNIFICANTLOCALPRESENCEFIGURE1SHOWSASCHEMATICDIAGRAMOFTHEWINECLUSTERINCALIFORNIATHISCLUSTERINCLUDES680COMMERCIALWINERIESANDSEVERALTHOUSANDINDEPENDENTWINEGRAPEGROWERSANEXTENSIVECOMPLEMENTOFSUPPORTINGINDUSTRIESTOBOTHWINEMAKINGANDGRAPEGROWINGEXISTSINCLUDINGSU
7、PPLIERSOFGRAPESTOCK,IRRIGATIONANDHARVESTINGEQUIPMENT,BARRELS,ANDLABELSSPECIALIZEDPUBLICRELATIONSANDADVERTISINGFIRMSANDNUMEROUSWINEPUBLICATIONSAIMEDATCONSUMERANDTRADEAUDIENCESAHOSTOFLOCALINSTITUTIONSAREINVOLVEDWITHWINESUCHASTHEWINEINSTITUTE,SPECIALCOMMITTEESOFTHECALIFORNIASTATESENATEANDASSEMBLY,ANDTH
8、EWORLDRENOWNEDVITICULTUREANDENOLOGYPROGRAMATTHEUNIVERSITYOFCALIFORNIA,DAVISTHECLUSTERALSOENJOYSWEAKERLINKAGESTOOTHERCALIFORNIACLUSTERSINAGRICULTURE,FOODANDRESTAURANTS,ANDWINECOUNTRYTOURISMDRAWINGCLUSTERBOUNDARIESOFTENISAMATTEROFDEGREEANDINVOLVESACREATIVEPROCESSINFORMEDBYUNDERSTANDINGTHELINKAGESANDCO
9、MPLEMENTARITIESACROSSINDUSTRIESANDINSTITUTIONSTHATAREMOSTIMPORTANTTOCOMPETITIONINAPARTICULARFIELDTHESTRENGTHOFTHESE“SPILLOVERS”ANDTHEIRIMPORTANCETOPRODUCTIVITYANDINNOVATIONOFTENARETHEULTIMATEBOUNDARYDETERMININGFACTORSCLUSTERSAREDEFINEDTOOBROADLYIFTHEYAREAGGREGATESSUCHASMANUFACTURING,SERVICES,CONSUME
10、RGOODS,OR“HIGHTECH”HERE,THECONNECTIONSAMONGINCLUDEDINDUSTRIESAREWEAKATBEST,ANDDISCUSSIONABOUTCLUSTERCONSTRAINTSANDPOTENTIALBOTTLENECKSWILLTENDTOGRAVITATETOGENERALITIESCONVERSELY,EQUATINGACLUSTERWITHASINGLEINDUSTRYMISSESTHECRUCIALINTERCONNECTIONSWITHOTHERINDUSTRIESANDINSTITUTIONSTHATSTRONGLYAFFECTCOM
11、PETITIVENESSCLUSTERSOCCURINMANYTYPESOFINDUSTRIES,INSMALLERFIELDS,ANDEVENINSOMELOCALINDUSTRIESSUCHASRESTAURANTS,CARDEALERS,ANDANTIQUESHOPSTHEYAREPRESENTINLARGEANDSMALLECONOMIES,INRURALANDURBANAREAS,ANDATSEVERALGEOGRAPHICLEVELSEG,NATIONS,STATES,METROPOLITANREGIONS,CITIESCLUSTERSOCCURINBOTHADVANCEDANDD
12、EVELOPINGECONOMIES,ALTHOUGHCLUSTERSINADVANCEDECONOMIESTENDTOBEFARMOREDEVELOPEDPORTER,1998BCLUSTERBOUNDARIESRARELYCONFORMTOSTANDARDINDUSTRIALCLASSIFICATIONSYSTEMS,WHICHFAILTOCAPTUREMANYIMPORTANTACTORSINCOMPETITIONANDLINKAGESACROSSINDUSTRIESBECAUSEPARTSOFACLUSTEROFTENAREPUTINTODIFFERENTTRADITIONALINDU
13、STRIALORSERVICECATEGORIES,SIGNIFICANTCLUSTERSMIGHTBEOBSCUREDOREVENUNRECOGNIZEDINMASSACHUSETTS,FOREXAMPLE,THEREPROVEDTOBEMORETHAN400COMPANIESCONNECTEDINSOMEWAYTOMEDICALDEVICES,REPRESENTINGATLEAST39,000HIGHPAYINGJOBSTHECLUSTERWASALLBUTINVISIBLE,BURIEDINSEVERALLARGERANDOVERLAPPINGINDUSTRYCATEGORIESSUCH
14、ASELECTRONICEQUIPMENTANDPLASTICPRODUCTSTHEAPPROPRIATEDEFINITIONOFACLUSTERCANDIFFERINDIFFERENTLOCATIONS,DEPENDINGONTHESEGMENTSINWHICHTHEMEMBERCOMPANIESCOMPETEANDTHESTRATEGIESTHEYEMPLOYTHELOWERMANHATTANMULTIMEDIACLUSTER,FOREXAMPLE,CONSISTSPRIMARILYOFCONTENTPROVIDERSANDFIRMSINRELATEDINDUSTRIESSUCHASPUB
15、LISHING,BROADCASTMEDIA,ANDGRAPHICANDVISUALARTSTHESANFRANCISCOBAYAREAMULTIMEDIACLUSTER,BYCONTRAST,CONTAINSMANYHARDWAREANDSOFTWAREINDUSTRIESTHATPROVIDEENABLINGTECHNOLOGYCLUSTERSALSOCANBEEXAMINEDATVARIOUSLEVELSOFAGGREGATIONEG,AGRICULTURECLUSTER,WINECLUSTER,THEREBYEXPOSINGDIFFERENTISSUESTHEBOUNDARIESOFC
16、LUSTERSCONTINUALLYEVOLVEASNEWFIRMSANDINDUSTRIESEMERGE,ESTABLISHEDINDUSTRIESSHRINKORDECLINE,ANDLOCALINSTITUTIONSDEVELOPANDCHANGETECHNOLOGICALANDMARKETDEVELOPMENTSGIVERISETONEWINDUSTRIES,CREATENEWLINKAGES,ORALTERSERVEDMARKETSREGULATORYCHANGESALSOCONTRIBUTETOSHIFTINGBOUNDARIES,FOREXAMPLE,ASTHEYHAVEINTE
17、LECOMMUNICATIONSANDTRANSPORTWHYVIEWECONOMIESUSINGTHELENSOFCLUSTERSINSTEADOF,ORINADDITIONTO,MORETRADITIONALGROUPINGSSUCHASCOMPANIES,INDUSTRIES,SICCODES,ANDSECTORSEG,MANUFACTURING,SERVICESTHEMOSTIMPORTANTREASONISTHATTHECLUSTERASAUNITOFANALYSISISBETTERALIGNEDWITHTHENATUREOFCOMPETITIONANDAPPROPRIATEROLE
18、SOFGOVERNMENTCLUSTERS,BROADERTHANTRADITIONALINDUSTRYCATEGORIZATIONS,CAPTUREIMPORTANTLINKAGES,COMPLEMENTARITIES,ANDSPILLOVERSINTERMSOFTECHNOLOGY,SKILLS,INFORMATION,MARKETING,ANDCUSTOMERNEEDSTHATCUTACROSSFIRMSANDINDUSTRIESTHESEEXTERNALITIESCREATEAPOSSIBLERATIONALEFORCOLLECTIVEACTIONANDAROLEFORGOVERNME
19、NTASWILLBEDISCUSSEDFURTHER,SUCHCONNECTIONSACROSSFIRMSANDINDUSTRIESAREFUNDAMENTALTOCOMPETITION,TOPRODUCTIVITY,ANDESPECIALLYTOTHEDIRECTIONANDPACEOFNEWBUSINESSFORMATIONANDINNOVATIONMOSTCLUSTERPARTICIPANTSARENOTDIRECTCOMPETITORSBUTRATHERSERVEDIFFERENTSEGMENTSOFINDUSTRIESYETTHEYSHAREMANYCOMMONNEEDS,OPPOR
20、TUNITIES,CONSTRAINTS,ANDOBSTACLESTOPRODUCTIVITYTHECLUSTERPROVIDESACONSTRUCTIVEANDEFFICIENTFORUMFORDIALOGUEAMONGRELATEDCOMPANIES,THEIRSUPPLIERS,GOVERNMENT,ANDOTHERINSTITUTIONSBECAUSEOFEXTERNALITIES,PUBLICANDPRIVATEINVESTMENTSTOIMPROVECLUSTERCIRCUMSTANCESBENEFITMANYFIRMSSEEINGAGROUPOFCOMPANIESANDINSTI
21、TUTIONSASACLUSTERALSOHIGHLIGHTSOPPORTUNITIESFORCOORDINATIONANDMUTUALIMPROVEMENTINAREASOFCOMMONCONCERNWITHLESSOFARISKOFDISTORTINGCOMPETITIONORLIMITINGTHEINTENSITYOFRIVALRYVIEWINGTHEWORLDINTERMSOFNARROWERINDUSTRIESORSECTORS,CONVERSELY,OFTENDEGENERATESTOLOBBYINGOVERSUBSIDIESANDTAXBREAKSBECARESULTINGPUB
22、LICINVESTMENTSINVOLVEFEWERSPILLOVERBENEFITSACROSSFIRMSANDINDUSTRIESAND,THEREFORE,AREPRONETODISTORTMARKETSBECAUSELARGEPROPORTIONSOFPARTICIPANTSINSUCHNARROWGROUPINGSOFTENAREDIRECTCOMPETITORS,THEREISAVERYREALTHREATTHATRIVALRYWILLBEDIMINISHEDCOMPANIESALSOOFTENAREHESITANTABOUTPARTICIPATINGFORFEAROFAIDING
23、DIRECTCOMPETITORSANINDUSTRYORNARROWSECTORALPERSPECTIVETENDSTORESULTINDISTORTINGCOMPETITIONANTICOMPETITIVERENTSEEKINGBEHAVIOR,THEN,WHEREASACLUSTERPERSPECTIVEFOCUSESONENHANCINGCOMPETITIONPROCOMPETITIVETHEPRESENCEOFCUSTOMERS,SUPPLIERS,ANDFIRMSFROMRELATEDINDUSTRIESINTHEDIALOGUEHELPSTOPOLICEPROPOSALSTHAT
24、WILLLIMITCOMPETITIONIRETURNTOTHESEISSUESWHENIEXPLORETHEIMPLICATIONSOFCLUSTERSFORGOVERNMENTPOLICYLOCATIONANDCOMPETITIONDURINGRECENTDECADES,THINKINGABOUTTHEINFLUENCEOFLOCATIONONCOMPETITIONHASBEENBASEDONRELATIVELYSIMPLEVIEWSOFHOWCOMPANIESCOMPETETHESESEECOMPETITIONASLARGELYSTATICANDRESTINGONCOSTMINIMIZA
25、TIONINARELATIVELYCLOSEDECONOMYHERECOMPARATIVEADVANTAGEINFACTORSOFPRODUCTIONISDECISIVEINMORERECENTTHINKING,INCREASINGRETURNSTOSCALEPLAYACENTRALROLEYETACTUALCOMPETITIONISFARDIFFERENTCOMPETITIONISDYNAMICANDRESTSONINNOVATIONANDTHESEARCHFORSTRATEGICDIFFERENCESCLOSELINKAGESWITHBUYERS,SUPPLIERS,ANDOTHERINS
26、TITUTIONSAREIMPORTANT,NOTONLYTOEFFICIENCYBUTALSOTOTHERATEOFIMPROVEMENTANDINNOVATIONLOCATIONAFFECTSCOMPETITIVEADVANTAGETHROUGHITSINFLUENCEONPRODUCTIVITYANDESPECIALLYONPRODUCTIVITYGROWTHGENERICFACTORINPUTSTHEMSELVESUSUALLYAREABUNDANTANDREADILYACCESSEDPROSPERITYDEPENDSONTHEPRODUCTIVITYWITHWHICHFACTORSA
27、REUSEDANDUPGRADEDINAPARTICULARLOCATIONECONOMICDEVELOPMENTSEEKSTOACHIEVELONGTERMSUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENTINANATIONSSTANDARDOFLIVING,ADJUSTEDFORPURCHASINGPOWERPARITYSTANDARDOFLIVINGISDETERMINEDBYTHEPRODUCTIVITYOFANATIONSECONOMY,WHICHISMEASUREDBYTHEVALUEOFTHEGOODSANDSERVICESPRODUCTSPRODUCEDPERUNITOFTHENAT
28、IONSHUMAN,CAPITAL,ANDPHYSICALRESOURCESPRODUCTIVITY,THEN,DEFINESCOMPETITIVENESSTHECONCEPTOFPRODUCTIVITYMUSTENCOMPASSBOTHTHEVALUEPRICESTHATANATIONSPRODUCTSCOMMANDINTHEMARKETPLACEANDTHEEFFICIENCYWITHWHICHSTANDARDUNITSAREPRODUCEDTHEPRODUCTIVITYANDPROSPERITYOFALOCATIONRESTNOTONTHEINDUSTRIESINWHICHITSFIRM
29、SCOMPETEBUTRATHERONHOWTHEYCOMPETEFIRMSCANBEMOREPRODUCTIVEINANYINDUSTRYIFTHEYEMPLOYSOPHISTICATEDMETHODS,USEADVANCEDTECHNOLOGY,ANDOFFERUNIQUEPRODUCTSANDSERVICES,WHETHERTHEINDUSTRYISSHOES,AGRICULTURE,ORSEMICONDUCTORSALLINDUSTRIESCANEMPLOY“HIGHTECHNOLOGY,”ANDALLINDUSTRIESCANBE“KNOWLEDGEINTENSIVE”THUS,TH
30、ETERMHIGHTECH,WHICHNORMALLYISUSEDTOREFERTOFIELDSSUCHASINFORMATIONTECHNOLOGYANDBIOTECHNOLOGY,ISOFQUESTIONABLERELEVANCEABETTERTERMMIGHTBEENABLINGTECHNOLOGYTOSIGNIFYTHATTHESEFIELDSPROVIDETOOLSTHATCANENHANCETECHNOLOGYINMANYOTHERINDUSTRIESCONVERSELY,THEMEREPRESENCEINANYINDUSTRYDOESNOTBYITSELFGUARANTEEPRO
31、SPERITYIFFIRMSTHEREAREUNPRODUCTIVETRADITIONALDISTINCTIONSBETWEENHIGHTECHANDLOWTECH,MANUFACTURINGANDSERVICES,RESOURCEBASEDANDKNOWLEDGEBASED,ANDOTHERSHAVELITTLERELEVANCEPERSEIMPROVINGTHEPRODUCTIVITYOFALLINDUSTRIESENHANCESPROSPERITY,BOTHDIRECTLYANDTHROUGHTHEINFLUENCEONEINDUSTRYHASONTHEPRODUCTIVITYOFOTH
32、ERSNATIONALPRODUCTIVITYULTIMATELYISSETBYTHESOPHISTICATIONEG,TECHNOLOGY,SKILLWITHWHICHCOMPANIESCOMPETEUNLESSCOMPANIESBECOMEMOREPRODUCTIVE,ANECONOMYCANNOTBECOMEMOREPRODUCTIVETHESOPHISTICATIONOFCOMPANIESAPPROACHESTOCOMPETINGDETERMINESTHEPRICESTHATTHEIRPRODUCTSANDSERVICESCANCOMMANDANDTHEEFFICIENCYWITHWH
33、ICHTHEYPRODUCECOMPANYSOPHISTICATIONINCOMPETINGCANBETHOUGHTOFINTWOPARTSTHEFIRSTANDMOSTBASICISWHATITERMOPERATIONALEFFECTIVENESS,ORTHEEXTENTTOWHICHCOMPANIESINANATIONAPPROACHBESTPRACTICEINAREASSUCHASPRODUCTIONPROCESSES,TECHNOLOGIES,ANDMANAGEMENTTECHNIQUESPORTER,1996THESECONDASPECTOFCOMPANYSOPHISTICATION
34、RELATESTOTHETYPESOFSTRATEGIESCOMPANIESEMPLOYSUCHASTHEABILITYTOCOMPETEONDIFFERENTIATIONANDNOTJUSTCOST,THEARRAYOFSERVICESTHATCANBEPROVIDED,ANDTHEAPPROACHESUSEDINSELLINGINTERNATIONALLYYETTHESOPHISTICATIONOFHOWCOMPANIESCOMPETEINALOCATIONISSTRONGLYINFLUENCEDBYTHEQUALITYOFTHEMICROECONOMICBUSINESSENVIRONME
35、NTSOMEASPECTSOFTHEBUSINESSENVIRONMENTEG,THEROADSYSTEM,CORPORATETAXRATES,THELEGALSYSTEMCUTACROSSALLINDUSTRIESTHESEECONOMYWIDEOR“HORIZONTAL”AREASAREIMPORTANTANDOFTENREPRESENTTHEBINDINGCONSTRAINTSTOCOMPETITIVENESSINDEVELOPINGECONOMIESINMOREADVANCEDECONOMIESANDINCREASINGLYELSEWHERE,HOWEVER,THEMOREDECISI
36、VEASPECTSOFTHEBUSINESSENVIRONMENTFORCOMPETITIVENESSOFTENARECLUSTERSPECIFICEG,THEPRESENCEOFPARTICULARTYPESOFSUPPLIERS,SKILLS,ORUNIVERSITYDEPARTMENTSCAPTURINGTHEBUSINESSENVIRONMENTINALOCATIONISCHALLENGINGGIVENTHEMYRIADOFLOCATIONALINFLUENCESONPRODUCTIVITYANDPRODUCTIVITYGROWTHINTHECOMPETITIVEADVANTAGEOF
37、NATIONSPORTER,1990,IMODELTHEEFFECTOFLOCATIONONCOMPETITIONTHROUGHFOURINTERRELATEDINFLUENCES,GRAPHICALLYDEPICTEDINADIAMONDTHEDIAMONDMETAPHORHASBECOMECOMMONINREFERRINGTOTHETHEORYFIGURE2INARECENTTWOPARTARTICLE,IEXPLOREANDSTATISTICALLYTESTTHESEQUENTIALPROCESSBYWHICHTHEDIAMONDMUSTUPGRADEIFANECONOMYISTOADV
38、ANCEPORTER,1998BPARALLELIMPROVEMENTSINTHESOPHISTICATIONOFCOMPANYOPERATIONSANDSTRATEGIESANDTHEQUALITYOFTHEDIAMONDPROVIDETHEMICROECONOMICFOUNDATIONSOFECONOMICDEVELOPMENTAFEWELEMENTSOFTHISFRAMEWORKDESERVEHIGHLIGHTINGBECAUSETHEYAREIMPORTANTTOUNDERSTANDINGTHEROLEOFCLUSTERSINCOMPETITIONFACTORINPUTSRANGEFR
39、OMTANGIBLEASSETSSUCHASPHYSICALINFRASTRUCTURETOINFORMATION,THELEGALSYSTEM,ANDUNIVERSITYRESEARCHINSTITUTESTHATALLFIRMSDRAWONINCOMPETITIONTOINCREASEPRODUCTIVITY,FACTORINPUTSMUSTIMPROVEINEFFICIENCY,QUALITY,ANDULTIMATELYSPECIALIZATIONTOPARTICULARCLUSTERAREASSPECIALIZEDFACTORS,ESPECIALLYTHOSEINTEGRALTOINN
40、OVATIONANDUPGRADINGEG,ASPECIALIZEDUNIVERSITYRESEARCHINSTITUTE,NOTONLYARENECESSARYTOATTAINHIGHLEVELSOFPRODUCTIVITYBUTALSOTENDTOBELESSTRADABLEORAVAILABLEFROMELSEWHERETHECONTEXTFORFIRMSTRATEGYANDRIVALRYREFERSTOTHERULES,INCENTIVES,ANDNORMSGOVERNINGTHETYPEANDINTENSITYOFLOCALRIVALRYECONOMIESWITHLOWPRODUCT
41、IVITYARECHARACTERIZEDBYLITTLELOCALRIVALRYMOSTCOMPETITION,IFPRESENTATALL,COMESFROMIMPORTSLOCALRIVALRY,IFOCCURRINGATALL,INVOLVESIMITATIONPRICEISTHESOLECOMPETITIVEVARIABLE,ANDFIRMSHOLDDOWNWAGESTOCOMPETEINLOCALANDFOREIGNMARKETSCOMPETITIONINVOLVESMINIMALINVESTMENTMOVINGTOANADVANCEDECONOMYREQUIRESTHATVIGO
42、ROUSLOCALRIVALRYDEVELOPRIVALRYMUSTSHIFTFROMLOWWAGESTOLOWTOTALCOST,ANDTHISREQUIRESUPGRADINGTHEEFFICIENCYOFMANUFACTURINGANDSERVICEDELIVERYULTIMATELY,RIVALRYALSOMUSTEVOLVEFROMCOSTTOINCLUDEDIFFERENTIATIONCOMPETITIONMUSTSHIFTFROMIMITATIONTOINNOVATIONANDFROMLOWINVESTMENTTOHIGHINVESTMENTINNOTONLYPHYSICALAS
43、SETSBUTALSOINTANGIBLESEG,SKILLS,TECHNOLOGYCLUSTERS,ASWILLBEEVIDENT,PLAYANINTEGRALROLEINTHESETRANSITIONS什么是集群长期以来，把一定区域内的贸易和工业公司的集聚称为集群可以追溯到几个世纪之前了。关于产业集群理论上最早可以追溯到马歇尔（1890/1920），他把集群作为经济学基本原理中外部原理的一部分来阐述。集群是在一定地里范围内由各相互关联且毗邻的公司和相关机构组成的且在某些领域有互补性的一个群体。集群的地域范围很广泛，从一个国家，一个州，乃至一个城市并且包含他所跨越的国家的部分（例如南部德国和
44、德语系瑞士），集群地域范围的界定与信息交流、贸易沟通、互相关系和工作效率有关除去独种行业，集群还包括数个于其他单位有着激烈竞争的行业。这些行业包括针对供应商需求的专业输入,例如配件,机械设备,和为供应商提供的专业基础设施的服务。集群也经常提高对下游游通道或客户和互补用品或公司的制造商与技能、技术、或普通的投入。许多集群包括为政府和其他机构如、大学、智囊团、职业培训供应商,标准制定机构、行业协会,提供专业的培训,教育,信息、研究和技术支持许多集群包括贸易协会和其他集体的本身涉及聚类成员。最后,只要外国公司只要使永久性投资中的重大本地化，那么他们也可以成为集群的一部分。图1显示的就是在加州的酒集群
45、的经营原理图。这一集群包括680个商业葡萄酒厂和几千个独立的酒葡萄的种植商。一个完整的葡萄酒行业应当包括包装材料供应商的葡萄股票、灌溉和收割仪器,水罐,和标签专业化的公共关系和广告公司和众多的酒针对消费者和贸易出版物读者。在美国加州大学戴维斯分校，拥有一支为数众多的地方机构涉及葡萄酒如餐酒协会,专门委员会,加利福尼亚洲的参议院参与,和世界著名的葡萄酒和酿酒学项目。集群中较弱的联系也包括在加州其他集群的农业、食品餐厅、酒进行国家考察。绘画集群企业边界往往是创作过程的程度是一个通知联系了解和互补性在整个行业中最重要的事业单位,在某些特定领域的竞争。这些“溢出的力量”,甚至重要到生产力和创新往往是终
46、极的边界决定因素。如果将他们聚集如制造、服务、消费品、或“高科技化。“归类为集群的话，那么集群的定义就过于广泛了。在这里,即使是连接非常薄弱的包括产业集群,讨论和潜在的瓶颈约束都有可能找到适合的理论。相反地,就是有一个单一的产业集群错过至关重要的连接和制度与其它行业的强烈影响竞争力。集群发生在许多类型的行业,在较小的领域,甚至在一些地方产业如餐厅、汽车代理商,和古董店。他们目前的在大、小规模经济体,在乡村和城市地区,并在不同的地理水平例如,种族区、国家、大都市区,城市。集群发展战略的先进性与发生在发展中国家在经济发达国家,虽然集群往往相当发达的波特1998B。集群边界很少符合标准工业分类系统,
47、未能发现许多重要的成员在竞争与在整个行业的关联。因为部位的集群通常是把成不同的传统工业或服务项目,具有明显的集群可能被隐藏甚至肯定。在麻萨诸塞州,举例来说,那证明是超过400个公司以某种方式连接医疗器械,代表着至少39,000份高收入的工作。这个集群在表面上是看不见的,被隐藏在几大等范畴和重叠的工业电子设备和塑料制品。适当的定义的集群能在不同地点不同运用,这取决于成员企业对竞争对手的立场和策略的使用。曼哈顿的多媒体集群,例如,主要包括针对内容提供商和公司在相关行业出版、广播媒体、平面和视觉艺术。旧金山海湾地区多媒体集群,相比之下,包含许多硬件和软件公司,提供使用技术。也可以研究各级集群例如,大
48、规模农业集群、酿酒业集群之间的不同问题。集群的边界不断发展到新公司和行业,建立了行业出现下降,收缩、当地机构开发和变化。技术和市场的发展带来了新的产业,创造新的联系,或改变服务市场。如在电信和运输方面的监督管理的变化也有助于将边界规范化。为什么关注的角度集群经济而不是此外更传统的群组如公司、行业、上海国际赛车场有限公司以及部门例如、制造、服务最重要的原因是集群作为一个整体的分析更好的对准竞争的性质和适当的政府的角色。比传统产业集群,更广泛的归类,抓住重要的联系、补充和在技术方面的溢出效应,技术、信息、市场部、客户需求,公司和行业分割。并且政府可以因为这些外部性创造一个可能的理由成员的集体的行动
49、。本文中即将讨论,这些连接在公司和产业竞争的基础,劳动生产率和速度新业务的形成和创新。大多数集群参赛者不得直接竞争对手而是分段服务行业。然而他们分享许多共同的需求、机会、约束和阻碍生产力。聚类提供了一个建设性的、高效的对话的论坛,在相关的公司,他们的供应商、政府及其它机构。通过外部性的、公立的和私立的投资来提高集群的情况下许多公司的利益。看到一群公司和机构的机会也强调了集群相互协调、相互改善共同关心的地区以少于扭曲的危险的强度竞争或限制竞争。观察一群公司和机构的机会也强调了集群相互协调、相互改善共同关心的地区以少于扭曲的危险的强度竞争或限制竞争。公共投资少产生溢出利益包括在公司和行业和,因此,也容易扭曲了市场。因为较大的比重,参加者这种狭窄的群组通常是直接竞争对手,有一个非常真实的威胁,竞争将会降低。公司也经常参与犹豫不决因为害怕直接帮助竞争对手。一个行业或狭窄部门透视容易导致扭曲比赛反竞争的寻租行为,然后,而一个集群视角强调丰富比赛有利竞争的。在场的情况下,客户,供应商,公司在相关行业在对话有助于警察建议改进限制竞争。我还对这些问题进行思考当我的探索影响到政府的政策选择时。区域和竞争在近十年的时间里,我思考的重点,在于竞争影响的相对简单的观点是基于企业竞争对手的。因为他们看见得竞争是静态和住在成本最小化处于相对封闭的经济中发生的。这里的生产要素比较优势是决定性的。在最近
