1、本科毕业论文外文翻译外文题目THEETHICSOFCONSTRAINEDCHOICEHOWTHEINDUSTRIALIZATIONOFAGRICULTUREIMPACTSFARMINGANDFARMERBEHAVIOR出处JOURNALOFAGRICULTURALANDENVIRONMENTALETHICS2005(04)269291作者MARYKHENDRICKSONANDHARVEYSJAMES,JRTHEETHICSOFCONSTRAINEDCHOICEHOWTHEINDUSTRIALIZATIONOFAGRICULTUREIMPACTSFARMINGANDFARMERBEHAVIORJ
2、OURNALOFAGRICULTURALANDENVIRONMENTALETHICSMARYKHENDRICKSONANDHARVEYSJAMES,JRABSTRACTTHEINDUSTRIALIZATIONOFAGRICULTURENOTONLYALTERSTHEWAYSINWHICHAGRICULTURALPRODUCTIONOCCURS,BUTITALSOIMPACTSTHEDECISIONSFARMERSMAKEINIMPORTANTWAYSFIRST,CONSTRAINTSCREATEDBYTHEECONOMICENVIRONMENTOFFARMINGLIMITWHATOPTIONS
3、AFARMERHASAVAILABLETOHIMSECOND,BECAUSEOFTHEINDUSTRIALIZATIONOFAGRICULTUREANDTHERESULTINGECONOMICPRESSURESITCREATESFORFARMERS,THEFACTTHATDECISIONSARECONSTRAINEDCREATESNEWETHICALCHALLENGESFORFARMERSHAVINGFEWEROPTIONSWHENFACEDWITHSEVEREECONOMICPRESSURESISAVERYDIFFERENTSITUATIONFORFARMERSTHANHAVINGMANYO
4、PTIONSAVAILABLEWEDISCUSSTHEIMPLICATIONSOFCONSTRAINEDCHOICEANDSHOWTHATITINCREASESTHELIKELIHOODTHATFARMERSWILLCONSIDERUNETHICALBEHAVIORKEYWORDSAGRICULTURALINDUSTRIALIZATION,MARKETCONCENTRATION,FARMERETHICS,CONSTRAINEDBEHAVIOR1INTRODUCTIONWEAREINTERESTEDINHOWTHEINDUSTRIALIZATIONOFAGRICULTUREHASALTEREDT
5、HEWAYSINWHICHAGRICULTURALPRODUCTIONOCCURSANDTHEWAYSTHESENEWPRODUCTIONSYSTEMSIMPACTFARMERLEVELDECISIONMAKINGINETHICALLYIMPORTANTWAYSFIRST,CONSTRAINTSCREATEDBYTHEECONOMICENVIRONMENTOFFARMINGLIMITWHATOPTIONSAFARMERHASAVAILABLETOHIMFOREXAMPLE,POULTRYPRODUCTIONCONTRACTSRESTRICTTHEABILITIESOFPRODUCERSTOAD
6、OPTALTERNATIVEPRODUCTIONPRACTICES,SUCHASPRODUCTIONTECHNIQUESTHATAREENVIRONMENTALLYFRIENDLYHIERARCHSANDWELSH,2003THUS,PRODUCERSWHOOTHERWISEWOULDHAVEADOPTEDENVIRONMENTALLYFRIENDLYPRODUCTIONPRACTICESARERESTRICTEDFROMDOINGSOSIMILARLY,THEGENETICMODIFICATIONOFSEEDSCOUPLEDWITHRESTRICTIVELICENSINGREQUIREMEN
7、TSIMPOSEDBYTECHNOLOGYCOMPANIESLIMITSTHEABILITYOFFARMERSTOPRACTICETRADITIONALFARMINGACTIVITIES,SUCHASSAVINGSEEDSORCROSSBREEDINGPLANTSTODEVELOPSEEDVARIETIESTHATAREEFFICIENTFORLOCALENVIRONMENTALCONDITIONSMOREOVER,BECAUSETHEUSEOFGMSEEDSISBECOMINGMOREPROMINENTINAGRICULTURE,THEDISTRIBUTIONOUTLETSFORFARMER
8、SWHOCHOOSENOTTOPLANTGMSEEDSAREBEINGLIMITED,THUSCONSTRAININGHOWNONGMFARMERSAREABLETOMARKETTHEIRCROPSWEDISCUSSTHEETHICALIMPLICATIONSOFSUCHCONSTRAINTSCREATEDBYTHEINDUSTRIALIZATIONWITHINTHEAGRICULTURALSYSTEMSECOND,BECAUSEOFTHEINDUSTRIALIZATIONOFAGRICULTUREANDTHERESULTINGECONOMICPRESSURESINCLUDINGECONOMI
9、CMARGINALIZATIONITCREATESFORFARMERS,THEFACTTHATDECISIONSARECONSTRAINEDCREATESNEWETHICALCHALLENGESFORFARMERSHAVINGFEWEROPTIONSWHENFACEDWITHSEVEREECONOMICPRESSURESISAVERYDIFFERENTSITUATIONFORFARMERSTHANHAVINGMANYOPTIONSAVAILABLEWEARGUETHATGROWINGCONSTRAINTSINDECISIONMAKING,COUPLEDWITHINCREASESINTHEECO
10、NOMICPRESSURESFARMERSFACE,COULDCAUSEANEROSIONOFTHEETHICALATTITUDESANDBEHAVIORSOFFARMERSWEDISCUSSEVIDENCETHATTHEETHICSOFFARMERSISERODINGANDEXPLAINHOWTHEEROSIONOFFARMERETHICSISEXPLAINEDINPARTBYCONSTRAINTSPLACEDONTHEDECISIONMAKINGABILITYOFFARMERS2THECOMPETITIVEMARKETPLACEFORFARMERSINDUSTRIALIZATION,CHA
11、RACTERIZEDBYSTANDARDIZATION,MASSPRODUCTION,ANDSPECIALIZATION,HASBEENPROGRESSINGTHEENTIRE20THCENTURYINMOSTECONOMICSECTORSOFTHEUSECONOMYHOWEVER,WHILEITDIDNOTREALLYBECOMEVISIBLEINAGRICULTUREUNTILAFTERTHEWORLDWARII,ITPROGRESSEDRAPIDLYDURINGTHESECONDHALFOFTHECENTURYCALIFORNIAAGRICULTURETHEPRODUCTIONOFVEG
12、ETABLESUNDERCONTRACTSHOWEDTHEFIRSTSIGNSOFINDUSTRIALIZATIONINTHEFIRSTHALFOFTHECENTURYTHEPROCESSBECAMEMOSTAPPARENTINANIMALAGRICULTUREINTHEPRODUCTIONOFBROILERSINTHELATE1950SCHARACTERIZEDBYPRODUCTIONCONTRACTSANDVERTICALINTEGRATIONINCREASINGLY,BROILERSWEREREMOVEDFROMOPENMARKETSBECAUSETHESTAGESOFFEEDPRODU
13、CTION,BROILERPRODUCTION,ANDBROILERPROCESSINGCAMEUNDERCONTROLOFTHESAMEFIRMINDUSTRIALSIZEPROCESSINGFACILITIESFOCUSEDONMASSPRODUCTION,ANDAGLOBALMARKETINGNETWORKREQUIREDAHUGEAMOUNTOFCAPITALTHISLEDTOTHEDEVELOPMENTOFLARGE,WELLFINANCEDCORPORATIONSANDAGROWINGCONCENTRATIONOFCAPITALANDCONTROLINTHEFOODANDAGRIC
14、ULTURALSYSTEMTHOSERESPONSIBLEFORTHEACTUALPRODUCTIONOFFOODPRODUCTSFARMERS,FARMERWORKERS,ANDFOODPROCESSINGWORKERSHAVEBEENINCREASINGLYDESKILLEDINTHEPROCESS,REMOVINGMOREANDMOREDECISIONSFROMTHEACTUALPOINTOFPRODUCTION21CONCENTRATIONINAGRICULTUREFROMGENESTOMARKETSATTHEUNIVERSITYOFMISSOURI,HEFFERNANETAL1999
15、HAVETRACKEDCHANGESINMARKETSFORMAJORMIDWESTERNAGRICULTURALCOMMODITIESSINCETHEMID1980SALMOSTALLMARKETS,EXCEPTETHANOL,HAVEBECOMEINCREASINGLYCONCENTRATEDWHENFOURORFEWERFIRMSCONTROL40PERCENTORMOREOFANINDUSTRYSMARKET,THATSECTORLOSESCHARACTERISTICSOFACOMPETITIVEMARKETTODAYSUSFARMERSFACECONCENTRATEDMARKETSF
16、ORBOTHTHEIRINPUTSSEEDSANDCHEMICALSANDTHEIRPRODUCTSCROPSANDLIVESTOCKFIVEFIRMSDOMINATETHEGENETICSFORMANYOFTHECROPSTHATAREGROWNWORLDWIDEBAYERAFTERACQUIRINGAVENTIS,MONSANTO,DUPONTOWNEROFPIONEER,DOW,ANDSERGEANTAMERGEROFTHEAGRICULTURALDIVISIONSOFNOVARTISANDASTRAZENECATHESEGENETICFIRMSWEREABLETOCAPTURETHEI
17、RDOMINANTPOSITIONAFTERINTELLECTUALPROPERTYRIGHTSIPRSWEREGIVENTOFIRMSANDPRODUCTSOFBIOTECHNOLOGYWEREBECOMINGCOMMERCIALLYAVAILABLEINTHEORY,IPRSAREIMPORTANTTOGETFIRMSTOINVESTINEXPENSIVERESEARCH,SINCETHEYMUSTBEASSUREDTHEYCANRECEIVETHEECONOMICBENEFITSOFTHATRESEARCHINFOODANDAGRICULTURE,ONLYTHEMOSTHIGHLYCAP
18、ITALIZEDFIRMS,WHICHINCLUDEPHARMACEUTICALFIRMS,CANAFFORDSUCHEXPENSIVERESEARCHSMALLERFIRMSWITHOUTSUCHACCESSTOCAPITALOREVENLARGEFIRMSLIKECARGILLEXITEDTHESEEDBUSINESSINTHELATE1990S22THEFORMATIONOFFOODCHAINCLUSTERSCONCENTRATIONINCOMMODITYMARKETSHASSOMEHISTORICALTENDENCIESFOREXAMPLE,THEDOMINANCEOFAFEWPACK
19、ERSINTHE1920SGAVERISETOFEDERALANTITRUSTLEGISLATIONINAGRICULTUREINADDITIONTOAGRICULTURALCOMMODITYMARKETSLOSINGTHEIRCOMPETITIVENATURE,WEARESEEINGTHEEMERGENCEOFINTEGRATEDFOODCHAINCLUSTERSTHATDOMINATEFOODANDAGRICULTUREFROMGENESTOTHESHELFHEFFERNANETAL1999DIAGRAMEDTHREEOFTHESEEMERGINGCLUSTERSWHILECAREFULT
20、ONOTETHEDYNAMICNATUREOFTHEFOODANDAGRICULTURESYSTEM,ANDTHEPOTENTIALCHANGESTHATCOULDARISE,THEAUTHORSDOCUMENTEDANEMERGINGNEWSTRUCTUREINFOODANDAGRICULTURETHEBASICCONCLUSIONOFTHISREPORT,ANDANOTHERONEPRODUCEDBYHENDRICKSONETAL2001,WASTHATECONOMICPOWERINFOODANDAGRICULTUREANDTHUSTHEPOWERTOMAKEDECISIONSABOUTW
21、HEREANDWHATFOODISPRODUCED,WHOGROWSIT,ANDWHEREITISMARKETEDWASMOVINGTOWARDAFEWGLOBALFIRMSEMBEDDEDINAWEBOFRELATIONSHIPSINFOODPRODUCTION,FROMGENETICSTOGROCERYRETAILINGMOREOVER,THOSEWHOMAKEMOREOFTHEDECISIONSIE,MANAGEMENTTENDTOBEFINANCIALLYREWARDEDINOURECONOMICSYSTEM,LEADINGTOAPOINTWHEREMANYFARMERSFINDTHE
22、MSELVESINECONOMICALLYMARGINALJOBS23CHANGESINFOODRETAILINGWHILETHECLUSTERSILLUSTRATEDINFIGURES13STOPWITHFOODMANUFACTURING,FOODRETAILINGHASSEENTHEBIGGESTCHANGESSINCETHEMID1990STHESECHANGESAREHAVINGMAJORIMPACTSONWHATHAPPENSTOTHEAGRICULTURALMARKETPLACE,ANDBYEXTENSIONWHATHAPPENSTOFARMSANDTHEDIVERSITYOFTH
23、EPLANTSANDANIMALSTHATMAKEUPTHOSEFARMSCURRENTLY,ABOUTFIVETOSIXRETAILINGFIRMSAREEMERGINGONTHEGLOBALLEVEL,WITHWALMARTDOMINATINGASTHELARGESTUSGROCERYRETAILER8EVERYCONTINENTHASSEENTHEPENETRATIONOFTHEGIANTSOFFOODRETAILING,EVENINTOTHEPOORESTOFTHEPOORREGIONSREARDONANDBEDRAGGLE,2002WEATHERSPOONANDREARDON,200
24、3ASTHESEFIRMSGAINMARKETPOWER,THEYWILLBEABLETODICTATENOTONLYPRICEBUTALSOPRODUCTIONPRACTICESBACKTOTHEPROCESSORSANDPRODUCERFARMERSTHROUGHTHESUPPLYCHAINMOREOVER,THESEFIRMSWILLBEABLETOSPECIFYTHEGENETICSOFTHEGRAINS,FRUITS,VEGETABLES,ANDMEATSTHATTHEYSELL,GIVENTHEIRRELATIONSHIPWITHTHEFINALCONSUMERMARSDEN,20
25、033IMPLICATIONSOFCONSTRAINEDCHOICEALTHOUGHINDUSTRIALIZATIONHASRESULTEDINSUBSTANTIALINCREASESINAGRICULTURALPRODUCTIVITYOVERTHELASTCENTURY,ITSEFFECTHASCREATEDDOWNWARDPRESSURESONFARMPRICESEVENASINPUTCOSTSHAVEINCREASEDCONSISTENTWITHINFLATIONARYNORMSTHEDOWNWARDPRESSUREONPRICESRESULTINGFROMINCREASEDPRODUC
26、TIVITYCAUSESWHATCOCHRANE1958LIKENEDASATECHNOLOGICALTREADMILLASTHOMPSON1998,P108CLARIFIED,AGRICULTURALTECHNOLOGYINCREASEDFARMPRODUCTIVITY,BUTTHISINTURNLOWERSPRICES,FORCINGINDIVIDUALFARMERSTORUNFASTERJUSTTOSTAYINPLACEBECAUSETHEREISNOEVIDENCETHATTHESEECONOMICPRESSURESWILLSUBSIDE,AGRICULTURALINDUSTRIALI
27、ZATIONWILLHAVEIMPORTANTCONSEQUENCESONFARMERS,FARMLEVELDECISIONMAKING,ANDTHEBEHAVIOROFFARMERSHOWEVER,INADDITIONTOECONOMICPRESSURES,THEREISANOTHERIMPORTANTIMPLICATIONOFINDUSTRIALIZATION,REFLECTINGTHEISSUESOFWHOMAKESTHEDECISIONSABOUTWHATISPRODUCEDANDCONSUMEDANDWHETHERTHEQUESTIONOFWHOMAKESTHESEDECISIONS
28、MATTERSATALLTHEDISCUSSIONABOVESUGGESTSTHATARELATIVELYSMALLNUMBEROFFIRMS,WHICHCONTINUESTODECREASE,MAKEAGROWINGNUMBEROFTHEMAJORDECISIONSINTHEFOODSYSTEMINTHEUSANDAROUNDTHEWORLD31LOSSOFKNOWLEDGE,SKILLSONEIMPLICATIONOFCONSTRAINEDCHOICEISTHELOSSOFAGRICULTURALPRODUCTIONKNOWLEDGEASANILLUSTRATION,WHENFARMERS
29、SPECIALIZEINTHEPRODUCTIONOFONECROPORINPRODUCINGONESORTOFANIMAL,KNOWLEDGEISLOSTASFARMERSRELYONSTANDARDIZEDINPUTSTOPRODUCETHEIRCOMMODITYKLOPPENBURG,1991INDEED,ONECOULDARGUETHATKNOWLEDGEISLOSTALLALONGTHEWAYFROMFIELDTOMOUTHINTASTES,INCOOKINGSKILLS,INMANAGINGBIODIVERSITYINPRODUCINGFOODINSUCHAWAY,AGRICULT
30、UREHASBEENSUBJECTEDTOTHESAMEDISCIPLINEANDCONTROLASMANUFACTURINGANDINDUSTRYDESPITEARGUMENTSTHATAGRICULTUREHASNATURALORBIOLOGICALLIMITSTHATDOESNOTLENDFOODANDFIBERPRODUCTIONTOTHEMANUFACTURINGPARADIGMLOCKE,200232LOSSOFGENETICDIVERSITYCHANGESINTHESTRUCTUREOFFOODANDAGRICULTUREHAVEALSOHADIMPORTANTIMPACTSON
31、FARMLEVELECOLOGICALDIVERSITYASTHEMARKETPLACEFORFARMPRODUCTSHASCONSOLIDATED,FARMSHAVEGROWNLARGERANDMORESPECIALIZEDFORGENETICDIVERSITYANDECOLOGICALSYSTEMSASAWHOLE,THISSHOULDBEAGRAVECONCERNFORINSTANCE,SOMEAUTHORSARGUETHATTHEUSMIDWESTNOWREPRESENTSALARGEECOLOGICALSACRIFICEAREAJACKSONANDJACKSON,2001WITHFA
32、RMSCONSISTINGOFNOTHINGBUTCORN,BEANS,ANDCONFINEDANIMALFEEDINGOPERATIONSRESEARCHCARRIEDOUTBYSTUDENTSATIOWASTATEUNIVERSITYSHOWEDTHATIOWAFARMSWEREMUCHMOREDIVERSIFIEDINTHEEARLYPARTOFTHELASTCENTURYIN1935,SEVENDIFFERENTCOMMODITIESWEREPRODUCEDONATLEAST50PERCENTOFIOWAFARMS33INCREASEDCAPITALIZATIONREQUIREMENT
33、SANDFARMDEBTLOADSASSCALE,SPECIALIZATION,ANDSTANDARDIZATIONHAVETAKENHOLDINFOODPRODUCTION,THEUSEOFINPUTSANDTHEIRCOSTSHAVESOAREDMANUFACTURINGREQUIRESLARGESUMSOFCAPITAL,SOMETHINGTHECOOPERATIVEMOVEMENTRECOGNIZEDLONGAGOTHOSEWHOCANOBTAINCAPITAL,ANDTHOSEWHOHAVEACCESSTOCAPITALATALOWERCOST,AREINAMOREADVANTAGE
34、OUSPOSITIONRELATIVETOTHOSEWHOCANNOTCARGILL,FORINSTANCE,EXPECTSTODOUBLETHEIRNETWORTHEVERY57YEARS,WHICHREFLECTSANANNUALRETURNONINVESTMENTOFAPPROXIMATELY12PERCENTMOREOVER,THESEKINDSOFFIRMSSEEKINGCAPITALHAVEBETTERACCESSTOOTHERINVESTMENTCHANNELS,GIVINGTHEMASIGNIFICANTADVANTAGEOVERCOMMUNITYBASEDFARMERSORO
35、THERBUSINESSES34ETHICALIMPLICATIONSTHECONCENTRATEDANDINDUSTRIALIZEDNATUREOFAGRICULTURALMARKETSHASNOTONLYINCREASEDTHECOMPETITIVEPRESSURESFARMERSFACE,BUTALSORESULTEDINFARMERSHAVINGFEWERPRODUCTIONANDMARKETINGOPTIONSFORTHEIRCROPSANDLIVESTOCKLOSSOFCOMPETITIVEMARKETSFORTHEIROUTPUTSHASMADEPARTICIPATIONINEM
36、ERGINGFOODCHAINCLUSTERSMOREATTRACTIVEFORFARMERS,EVENGIVENTIGHTERCONTROLSONPRODUCTIONSTANDARDSINDEED,INCREASINGCONSOLIDATIONATTHERETAILLEVELMEANSTHATMOREPRODUCTIONSTANDARDSAREBEINGDICTATEDTOTHEFARMLEVELBYFOODMANUFACTURESANDAGRICULTURALPROCESSORSTRYINGTOPLEASETHEIRCLIENTSMOREOVER,INCREASINGLYCONCENTRA
37、TEDINPUTMARKETSMEANSITISMUCHMOREDIFFICULTFORFARMERSTOOBTAINNONGENETICALLYMODIFIEDSEEDSORHERITAGEBREEDS4CONCLUSIONSWEHAVESHOWNTHATASMARKETSBECOMEINCREASINGLYCONCENTRATED,THEDECISIONSTHATFARMERSCANMAKEABOUTWHATTOPRODUCEANDWHERETOSELLAREBECOMINGCONSTRAINEDFORINSTANCE,GLOBALLYEMERGINGFOODCHAINS,DOMINATE
38、DBYTRANSNATIONALFOODRETAILERS,DETERMINEMANYFARMLEVELDECISIONS,INTHATTHEYSHAPETHEMARKETSFORINPUTS,INCLUDINGSEEDSANDBREEDS,ASWELLASOUTPUTS,INCLUDINGLIVESTOCKANDGRAINSWEHAVEALSOSHOWNTHATCONSTRAINEDDECISIONCHOICESCANLEADTOEROSIONINETHICALBEHAVIOROFFARMERSCONSTRAINEDCHOICESFORFARMERSWILLLIKELYMEANMOREAND
39、MORESIGNIFICANTUNETHICALDECISIONSREGARDINGLAND,SEEDS,ANDLABORAGRICULTUREISEMERGINGASAPLACEWHEREETHICALLYCOMPROMISEDPOSITIONSCOULDBECOMENATURALFORFARMERS,ANDPERHAPSMIRROROTHERBUSINESSESTHATHAVEHADETHICALFAILURESINRECENTYEARSWITHFOODASABASICBUILDEROFLIFE,ANDWITHTHEPOTENTIALFORLARGESCALEENVIRONMENTALIM
40、PACTSFROMFARMING,ITISPERHAPSTIMETOTURNATTENTIONTOTHEETHICALATTITUDES,PROCLIVITIES,ANDBEHAVIORSOFFARMERS译文约束的伦理选择农业产业化如何在影响农业与农户行为摘要农业产业化,不仅改变了农业生产方式,同时也影响着农民的决定作出重要的决定。首先,制约农业创造的经济环境因素中,一个农民有何种供货来源很重要。其次,由于农业产业化以及由此产生的问题亦或是对农民造成经济压力,这实际上也是种农民创造性的伦理挑战。有较少的选择情况下,面临着严重的经济压力的农民与一个比有许多可供选择的农民显然存在着非常不同的情况
41、。我们讨论约束的选择时,表明其增加了农民考虑不道德行为的影响的可能性。关键词农业产业化,市场集中度,农民道德,约束行为一、介绍我们对这种在农业产业化改变了农业生产方式中出现的这些新的方式感到很大的兴趣,这也是影响农民的生产系统制定一级的决策伦理道德的重要因素之一。首先,制约农业创造的经济环境因素中,一个农民有何种供货来源很重要。例如,家禽生产合同限制生产者的能力,除非采用替代的生产的做法,如生产工艺,环保方面(哈瑞斯先生和威尔士,2003年)。然而推及其他的产业,谁生产环境友好型的生产厂商就不确定是否能这样做。同样,通过严格的授权与技术服务的公司进行种子基因改造,这也限制了农民传统的耕作实践能
42、力的活动,如节约种子和杂交种子的植物品种,发展当地的环境条件是有效的。同时,由于使用的转基因种子在农业中的作用越来越突出,如果农民不选择转基因植物种子进行种植,这也将制约这些农户在市场中的竞争力。我们讨论了在农业产业化创造了这种制度约束的伦理问题。其次,由于农业的工业化和在此基础上给一半农民造成的经济压力,包括经济上的边缘化,虽然同时它创造了价值,其实这一部分的影响的给农民创造了新的伦理挑战。在面临着严重的经济压力时,有较少的选择远比有较多可供选择的农民情况更加糟糕。我们可以知道,这一系列问题制约发展决策的制定,在面对经济压力增加时,农民就可能被引起的伦理态度的转变,其行为的也会相应的受到侵蚀
43、。我们讨论的证据解释了什么是农民的伦理侵蚀,并探究农民伦理侵蚀的深度了解,同时部分解释农民中的对决策能力的限制因素。二、农民的市场竞争在20世纪,随着工业化、标准化和大规模生产专业化等特点经济发展下,美国经济的发展速度尤其突出。然而,虽然美国并没有真正成为农业强国,直到第二次世界大战后,它的进展飞速,尤其在本世纪下半叶。加州农业产业化经营可以看到,其根据合同从而惊喜蔬菜的生产,这种产业化经营的模式在本世纪上半工业化时期已初步迹象。这个成功例子也成为在20世纪50年代中后期的肉鸡养殖业生产的借鉴按生产合同和垂直一体化的特点来生产农民所需物品。越来越多的肉鸡从原先开放的市场进入了一家控制的状态,因
44、为饲料生产,肉鸡生产,肉鸡加工等阶段实现专业化。产业规模日渐扩大,办置集中设施以及大规模生产和全球性的营销网络都需要大笔资金,这也导致了资金充足的企业将发展的资本日益集中在食品和农业系统的控制之上。农民,农民工,食品加工工人,这些对粮食产品的实际生产负责人已越来越多,消除原先单一生产多决策的状况。1、对有关农业市场的因素研究在密苏里,赫弗南等大学,(1999年)学者一直在跟踪主要在中西部自80年代中期农产品市场的变化。几乎所有市场,除了乙醇,已成为越来越集中。旺角亨德里克森的企业控制百分之四十以上的行业的市场,该部门赢得了竞争的市场。今天的美国农民都面临其投入(种子和化学品)及其产品(农作物和
45、牲畜)集中的农业产业化市场。五家公司占主导地位的公司的成长作为全球性作物遗传学的依次是拜耳(后收购安万特公司),孟山都,杜邦(先锋所有者),陶氏,和先正达(一种诺华和阿斯利康农业部门合并)。这些生产基因的企业在够捕捉他们的统治地位后,将其知识产权给予高价出售给其他公司进行生物技术产品的生产,这种专利也慢慢成为商用。从理论上讲,知识产权是很重要。因为企业投资在前期昂贵的研究上的费用,作为出售知识产权时他们必须保证他们能接受这项研究的经济效益。在食品和农业行业,只有最高度资本化的公司,其中包括制药公司,才可以承受这样昂贵的研究。即使是大型或类似嘉吉公司,如果没有这样进入资本,规模较小的公司在90年
46、代末早已退出的种子行业。(2)、集群的综合性食品链纪20年代一些地方优势引起了联邦反托拉斯的农业立法。除农业商品市场失去竞争性,我们也看到了其中占主导地位的部分,从基因粮食和农业的发展两部分出现。学者们虽然谨慎地注意到粮食和农业系统的动态稳定性及其特性,以及可能出现的潜在的变化,记录一个新兴的粮食和农业新架构的产生,但本报告的基本结论,通过亨德里克森等人制作的另外一个有利于集群的战略方针。集群的综合性食物链是在粮食和农业的经济力量,其决定权在哪里,什么食品能够生产,谁的增长最快,以及如何销售,这些都是对网络中的一些全球性公司的嵌入式移动粮食生产关系的涉及,从蔬菜零售方面看就是一个很好的例子。此
47、外,那些拥有更多的决定权的往往是使我们的经济金钱奖励系统缺少公平性,导致到一许农民发现自己在经济上处于弱势的工作的地步。(3)、食品零售日益变化食品零售业出现在90年代中期,最大的变化趋势也正处于这个时期。这些变化正在对所发生的农业市场的形成产生了影响,并由此延伸到农场如何经营以及植物和动物的选择,尤其对这些农场的多样性构成重大影响。目前,大约有五、六年的新兴零售企业在全球层面上,与沃尔玛一样作为美国最大的主导食品乐购,其将脚步涉及每个有利润的地方,每一个大陆已经出现了食品零售的巨人,它们甚至渗透到了贫困地区最贫困的的地区(里尔登和布莱吉,2002年韦瑟斯庞和里尔登,2003)。由于这些企业获
48、得更多的市场力量,他们将能够决定不仅仅是价格,而且还有生产方式的选择以及回收处理等的标准规定,通过供应链来引导农民进行有步骤的生产。此外,这些公司将能够出售指定的基因谷物,例如水果、蔬菜和肉类等,因为他们与最终消费者(马斯登,2003年)存在着必然的利益上的关系。三、约束选择的影响虽然随着工业化农业生产力的大幅增加,在上个世纪,它不仅使农产品的价格的有明显的下降,同时避免了投入成本增加与通货膨胀的标准,在一定程度上减轻了农户生产的压力。对价格的下调影响中,如何提高了生产效率这一问题科克伦(1958)比喻为汤普森科技跑步机,他澄清了这样一个道理农业技术提高了农业生产率,但反过来,这降低了价格,强
49、迫农民个人跑得更快相对于仅仅停留在原来的地方的农民。因为没有证据能够表明这些经济压力将如何消退,何时消退,农业产业化对农民将有重要影响,尤其是农场一级的决策将直接影响农民的行为。然而,除了在经济压力外,还有另一种工业化的重要意义,就是如何决定生产和消费的问题。以上的研究表明,在美国和世界各地随着行业企业的数量相对较少,进而继续减少,使粮食系统对越来越多的重大决策越难做出决定。(1)、知识,技能的缺乏在农业产业化中其中约束因素是农业生产知识的缺乏。举一个例证,当农民专门从事一种作物的生产或生产一种动物的时候,知识就是农民依靠其来对标准化的的生产的知识储备与应用,当然还要随实践的检验加以充实,从而生产所需的商品(KLOPPENBURG,1991)。事实上,也可以这样说,人们运用知识来获得劳动的目的性,从而拒绝了失去了一切的可能。譬如烹饪技能抑或烹饪口味,管理生物多样性等的运用。在这种方式生产下的食品,农业尽管遭受了相同的标准和纪律的控制,但其收获远比原先的多的多。再如与制造业和工业相比较,农业具有天然的或生物上的限制,不适合食品和纤维生产的制造模式(洛基,2002)。(2)、遗传多样性的缺失在粮食和农业结构变动方面,农场国家级生态多样性也在这方面对农业产业化产生了的重要影响。随着农产品市场的日渐巩固,农场变得更大和更