1、(2011届)本科毕业设计(论文)外文翻译原文THEECLECTICOLIPARADINGMOFINTERNATIONALPRODUCTIONPASTPRESENTANDFUTUREJOHNHDUNNINGINTFOFTHEECONOMICSOFBUSINESS,VOL8,NO2,2001,PP173190ABSTRACTTHISARTICLEDESCRIBESTHEORIGINS,ANDTRACESTHESUBSEQUENTEVOLUTIONOFTHEECLECTICPARADIGMOMTHEMID1950STOTHEPRESENTDAYITDOESSOINTHELIGHTOFTHECHAN
2、GINGCHARACTERISTICSOFMNEACTIVITYANDOFTHEGLOBALECONOMICSCENARIOTHEARTICLECONCLUDESBYASSERTINGTHATTHEECLECTICPARADIGMSTILLREMAINSAPOWERFULANDROBUSTFRAMEWORKFOREXAMININGCONTEXTUALSPECIFICTHEORIESOFFOREIGNDIRECTINVESTMENTANDINTERNATIONALPRODUCTIONKEYWORDSECLECTICPARADIGMFDIMNESSTRATEGYINTERNATIONALPRODU
3、CTIONALLIANCESFELCLASSIFICATIONSF21,F23,M211ITSORIGINSALTHOUGHTHEECLECTICPARADIGMORTHEECLECTICTHEORYASITWASINITIALLYCALLEDOFINTERNATIONALPRODUCTIONWASFIRSTPUTFORWARDBYTHEPRESENTAUTHORATANOBELSYMPOSIUMINSTOCKHOLMIN1976,ITSORIGINSCANBETRACEDBACKTOTHEMID1950SATTHATTIME,IWASWRITINGMYPHDTHESIS,LATERTOBEP
4、UBLISHEDASABOOKDUNNING,1958,ONUSDIRECTINVESTMENTINBRITISHMANUFACTURINGINDUSTRYEARLIERRESEARCHBYROSTAS1948,FRANKEL1955ANDSOMEANGLOAMERICANSTUDYTEAMSLHADSHOWNTHATTHELABOURPRODUCTIVITYINUSMANUFACTURINGINDUSTRYWAS,ONAVERAGE,2TO5TIMESHIGHERTHANTHATINUKINDUSTRYTHEQUESTIONTHISFACTPOSEDINMYMINDWASWASTHISDIF
5、FERENCEINPRODUCTIVITYAREFLECTIONOFTHESUPERIORINDIGENOUSANDIMMOBILERESOURCESOFTHEUSCFTHEUKECONOMYORWASITDUETOTHEMOREPROFICIENTWAYINWHICHTHEMANAGERSOFUSFIRMSCFUKFIRMSHARNESSEDANDORGANISEDTHESERESOURCESACAPABILITYWHICH,IARGUED,ATLEASTTOSOMEEXTENT,MIGHTBETRANSFERABLEACROSSNATIONALBOUNDARIESTHEHYPOTHESIS
6、OFMYTHESISTHENWAS,IFTHESUPERIORPRODUCTIVITYWASENTIRELYMANAGERIALLYRELATED,USMANUFACTURINGAFFILIATESINTHEUKSHOULDPERFORMATLEASTASWELLASTHEIRPARENTCOMPANIES,ANDFARECONSIDERABLYBETTERTHANTHEIRINDIGENOUSCOMPETITORSTHISIIDENTIFIEDASTHEOWNERSHIPSPECIFICEFFECT,ASTHEPRODUCTIVITYDIFFERENCESWEREPRESUMEDTOREST
7、ONTHESPATIALLYTRANSFERABLEINTANGIBLEASSETSOFTHEPARENTCOMPANIESIF,HOWEVER,THEUSAFFILIATESINTHEUKRECORDEDNOBETTERPERFORMANCESTHANTHEIRUKCOMPETITORS,ANDHENCE,MUCHPOORERTHANTHATOFTHEIRPARENTCOMPANIES,IHYPOTHESISEDTHATTHISWOULDBEDUETOTHENONTRANSFERABLECHARACTERISTICSOFTHEUSECONOMYTHISICALLEDTHELOCATIONSP
8、ECIFICCOMPONENTOFANYPRODUCTIVITYDIFFERENTIALASMIGHTBEEXPECTED,IDISCOVEREDTHATUSAFFILIATESWERENOTASPRODUCTIVEASTHEIRPARENTCOMPANIES,BUTWEREMOREPRODUCTIVETHANTHEIRLOCALCOMPETITORSTHISTHENSUGGESTEDTHAT,INTHE1950S,ATLEAST,ANGLOAMERICANPRODUCTIVITYDIFFERENCESWEREPARTLYEXPLAINABLEBYLOCATIONLANDPARTLYBYOWN
9、ERSHIPOSPECIFICCHARACTERISTICSHOWEVER,MYSTUDYOMITTEDTOASKAFOLLOWUPQUESTION,NAMELY,TOWHATEXTENTWASTHEORIGINOFTHEOADVANTAGESOFUSFIRMSTHEMSELVESHOMECOUNTRYSPECIFICNEITHERDIDITATTEMPTTODISTINGUISHBETWEENTHOSEOADVANTAGESTHATAROSEASACONSEQUENCEOFUSDIRECTINVESTMENTINTHEUKANDTHOSETHATTHEUSFIRMSPOSSESSEDPRIO
10、RTOENGAGINGINFOREIGNPRODUCTIONITOOKUPTHETHEMEOFOWNERSHIPANDLOCATIONADVANTAGESAGAININTWOPAPERSWRITTENINTHEEARLY1970STHEFIRSTDUNNING,1972,CONCERNEDTHELIKELYIMPACTOFBRITAINSMEMBERSHIPOFTHEEUROPEANCOMMONMARKETECMINIT,ISUGGESTEDTHATWHILETHEREMOVALOFTARIFFBARRIERSWOULDCAUSESOMEREALIGNMENTOFTHELOCATIONOFEC
11、ONOMICACTIVITYWITHINTHEECM,ITWOULDALSOBELIKELYTOAFFECTTHECOMPETITIVEPOSITIONOFFIRMSOFDIFFERENTNATIONALORIGINSAND,INCONSEQUENCE,THEOWNERSHIPOFPRODUCTIONINTHEECMTHESECONDPAPERDUNNING,1973WASANATTEMPTTOREVIEWTHEVARIOUSATTEMPTSWHICHHADBEENMADETOEXPLAINTHEACTIVITIESOFFIRMSOUTSIDETHEIRNATIONALBOUNDARIESOV
12、ERTHEPASTDECADEINTHATCONTRIBUTIONITRIEDTOINTEGRATETHEINDUSTRIALORGANISATIONALANDLOCATIONALDETERMINANTSOFINTERNATIONALPRODUCTIONIARGUED,LIKEHYMER19601976THATWHILETHEFIRSTWASNECESSARYTOEXPLAINWHYTHEAFFILIATESOFFOREIGNFIRMSCOULDCOMPETESUCCESSFULLYWITHDOMESTICFIRMSINSUPPLYINGTHELATTERSMARKETS,THESECONDW
13、ASRELEVANTTOEXPLAININGWHYTHEFORMERFIRMSCHOSETOSUPPLYTHEIRMARKETSFROMAFOREIGN,RATHERTHANFROMADOMESTIC,BASEIN1975,IWASASKEDTOPRESENTAPAPERATANOBELSYMPOSIUMONTHEINTERNATIONALLOCATIONOFECONOMICACTIVITYWHICHWASHELDINSTOCKHOLMINJUNE1976THISSYMPOSIUMWASORGANISEDBYBERTILOHLINANDATTENDEDBYLEADINGINTERNATIONA
14、LECONOMISTS,ECONOMICGEOGRAPHERS,ANDREGIONALSCIENTISTSFORTHEMOSTPART,THESEMINARWASORIENTEDTOWARDSANEVALUATIONOFCOUNTRYSPECIFICFACTORSINFLUENCINGTHECHANGINGDISTRIBUTIONOFINTERNATIONALECONOMICACTIVITY,BUTTHESTARTINGPOINTOFMYPAPERWASTHATACOUNTRYSECONOMICSPACECOULDBECONSIDEREDINTWOWAYSTHEFIRSTWASTHEVALUE
15、OFOUTPUTPRODUCEDWITHINITSNATIONALBOUNDARIESINDEPENDENTLYOFTHEOWNERSHIPOFTHATPRODUCTIONTHESECONDWASTHEOUTPUTPRODUCEDBYITSOWNFIRMS,INCLUDINGTHATPARTPRODUCEDOUTSIDEITSNATIONALBOUNDARIESTHISFURTHERDISTINGUISHEDBETWEENTHECOMPETITIVEADVANTAGESOFCOUNTRIESANDTHATOFFIRMSWHICHIHAVEBEENATPAINSTOSTRESSINSEVERAL
16、OFMYWRITINGSINEXPLAININGTHEACTIVITYOFFIRMSOUTSIDETHEIRNATIONALBOUNDARIES,IEXTENDEDTHEOANDLADVANTAGESIDENTIFIEDINMYEARLIERRESEARCHTOINCLUDEANOTHERSETOFCHOICESAVAILABLETOFIRMS,WHICHRELATEDTOTHEWAYTHEFIRMSORGANISEDTHEGENERATIONANDUSEOFTHERESOURCESANDCAPABILITIESWITHINTHEIRJURISDICTIONANDTHOSETHEYCOULDA
17、CCESSINDIFFERENTLOCATIONSINOTHERWORDS,IACKNOWLEDGEDTHAT,TOEXPLAINFULLYTHEEXTENTANDPATTERNOFTHEFOREIGNVALUEADDEDACTIVITIESOFFIRMS,ONEALSOHADTOEXPLAINWHYSUCHFIRMSOPTEDTOGENERATEAND/OREXPLOITTHEIROSPECIFICADVANTAGESINTERNALLY,RATHERTHANTOACQUIREAND/ORSELLTHESE,ORTHEIRRIGHTS,THROUGHTHEOPENMARKETSUCHADVA
18、NTAGESIREFERREDTOASINTERNALISATIONIADVANTAGESANDTHESEBECAMETHETHIRDLEGOFTHEOWNERSHIP,LOCATIONANDINTERNALISATIONOLITRIPODINEXPLAININGTHESCOPEANDGEOGRAPHYOFVALUEADDEDACTIVITIESBYMULTINATIONALENTERPRISESMNESIWOULDBETHEFIRSTTOADMITTHAT,INMYWORKONIADVANTAGES,IWASCONSIDERABLYINFLUENCEDBYMYCOLLEAGUESPETERB
19、UCKLEYANDMARKCASSONOFTHEUNIVERSITYOFREADING,WHOWEREINTHEPROCESSOFWRITINGTHEFUTUREOFTHEMULTINATIONALENTERPRISE1976,ALTHOUGHMYFIRSTEXPOSURETOTHECONCEPTOFINTERNALISATION,ASAPPLIEDTOTHEMNE,CAMEIN1972WHENIREADANARTICLEBYJCMCMANUS1972INGUYPAQUETSEDITEDVOLUMEONTHEMULTINATIONALFIRMANDTHENATIONSTATEAYEARLATE
20、R,ONAVISITTOUPPSALAINSWEDEN,IHADCONVERSATIONSWITHNILSLUNDGREN,ASWEDISHECONOMISTWHOWASTHINKINGALONGTHESAMELINESINHISATTEMPTTOEXPLAINTHEGROWTHOFSWEDISHFOREIGNDIRECTINVESTMENTFDINEVERTHELESS,IREGARDEDTHISNEWINSIGHTASAUSEFULADDITIONTOMYOWNAPPROACHINEXPLAININGTHEDETERMINANTSOFTHEFOREIGNPRODUCTION,ANDNOTA
21、REPLACEMENTOFIT,AVIEWISTILLHOLDTODAYOVERTHEPASTTWOANDAHALFDECADES,IHAVEBENEFITEDENORMOUSLYFROMTHECOMMENTSOFFRIENDSANDCOLLEAGUESONTHEECLECTICPARADIGMOFINTERNATIONALPRODUCTIONSIACCEPTTHATINMYEARLIERWORKIDIDTENDTOLOOKATIADVANTAGESMOREASTHOSETHATAROSEFROMTHEWAYOADVANTAGESWEREEXPLOITEDRATHERTHANASAMARKET
22、REPLACEMENTACTIVITYWHICHCONFERREDITSOWNHIERARCHICALADVANTAGESWHILE,ASSETOUTINMYBOOKMULTINATIONALENTERPRISESANDTHEGLOBALECONOMYDUNNING,1993A,ISTILLPREFERTOTHINKOFOADVANTAGESASANYKINDOFINCOMEGENERATINGASSETTHATALLOWFIRMSTOENGAGEINFOREIGNPRODUCTION,IREADILYACKNOWLEDGETHATTHESEMAYARISEASADIRECTCONSEQUEN
23、CEOFCROSSBORDERMARKETREPLACINGACTIVITIESBUT,EVENWHERETHISISTHECASE,IBELIEVETHATAFIRMSABILITYTOBENEFITFROMSUCHACTIVITIESMUSTBERELATEDTOTHEASSETSWHICHITPOSSESSESPRIORTOTHEACTOFINTERNATIONALTHEECONOMIESOFCOMMONGOVERNANCEARISEBECAUSEAFIRMINTEGRATESITSEXISTINGACTIVITIESWITHNEWACTIVITIESFOREXAMPLE,AFIRMTH
24、ATISCURRENTLYPRODUCINGINCOUNTRYA,ANDBELIEVESITWILLBENEFITFROMTHEECONOMIESOFSCOPEANDBYTHEDIVERSIFICATIONOFRISKSIFITPRODUCESINCOUNTRYB,WILLGAINFROMSUCHDIVERSIFICATION,ONLYIFITPRODUCESINBOTHCOUNTRYAANDCOUNTRYBAFIRMTHATBENEFITSFROMTHECROSSBORDERECONOMIESOFSCOPEORSCALEWILLONLYDOSOIFTHENEWINVESTMENTISINAD
25、DITIONTOITSEXISTINGINVESTMENTAFIRMTHATMAKESAFOREIGNACQUISITIONTOOBTAINNEWANDUPTODATETECHNOLOGYORMANAGERIALCAPABILITIESPRESUMABLYDOESSOBECAUSEITBELIEVESITCANUSESUCHASSETSALONGWITHITSEXISTINGCORECOMPETENCESINAWAYWHICHWILLPROTECTORAUGMENTITSCOMPETITIVEPOSITIONTHISMAYSEEMANOBVIOUSPOINT,BUTTOMEATANYRATE,
26、THEDISTINCTIONBETWEENTHEBENEFITSTHATACCRUEFROMTHEGAINSTOBEHADFROMINTERNALISINGTHEMARKETOFANEXISTINGASSETANDTHOSETHATARISEFROMCOORDINATINGEXISTINGASSETSWITHNEWASSETS,VISVISSOMEALTERNATIVEUSEWHICHMIGHTBEMADEOFTHOSEASSETS,ISANIMPORTANTONE5CONCLUDINGREMARKSALOOKTOWARDSTHEFUTURELETMECONCLUDEBYREEMPHASISI
27、NGANUMBEROFPOINTSTHEFIRSTISTHAT,ALTHOUGHIHAVESOMETIMESILLUSTRATEDTHEECLECTICPARADIGMBYREFERENCETOTHEINDIVIDUALFIRM,MYMAINFOCUSOFINTERESTISINEXPLAININGTHEINTERNATIONALPRODUCTIONOFALLFIRMSFROMAPARTICULARCOUNTRYORGROUPOFCOUNTRIESBECAUSEOFTHIS,ICONTENDTHATITISINAPPROPRIATETOCOMPARETHEMERITSANDDEMERITSOF
28、THEECLECTICPARADIGMWITHTHATOFINTERNALISATIONANDOTHERTHEORIESOFTHEFIRMSECOND,IACCEPTTHATSOMEOSPECIFICADVANTAGESAREDIRECTLYTHERESULTOFFIRMSINTERNALISINGTHEMARKETFORITSINTERMEDIATEPRODUCTSACROSSNATIONALBORDERSHOWEVER,SINCETHISVERYACTOFINTERNALISATIONPUTSTHEINTERNALISINGFIRMSATANADVANTAGERELATIVETONONIN
29、TERNALISINGFIRMS,ITHINKITAPPROPRIATETOREFERTOTHISBENEFITASANADVANTAGEANDTOINTERNALISATIONASTHEMODALITYBYWHICHTHISADVANTAGEISREALTHIRD,IACKNOWLEDGETHATTHEECLECTICPARADIGM,ASORIGINALLYCONCEIVEDISUNCOMFORTABLEINDEALINGWITHTHEDYNAMICSOFINTERNATIONALPRODUCTIONHOWEVER,IWOULDARGUETHATITCANHELPTOEXPLAINWHYA
30、NINDUSTRYSORCOUNTRYSINTERNATIONALINVESTMENTPROFILEMAYBEDIFFERENTINTWOPOINTSOFTIMELINKTHESETWOPOINTS,ONENEEDSTOINTRODUCECHANGESINTHEEXOGENOUSORENDOGENOUSVARIABLES,INCLUDINGSTRATEGYANDHOWTHESEINTURNAFFECTTHEOLICONFIGURATIONIHAVEILLUSTRATEDFROMTHEIDPHOWTHISMAYBEDONEATAMACROLEVELATANINDUSTRYORMICROLEVEL
31、,ONLYADETAILEDEXAMINATIONOFTHEPROFILEOFINDIVIDUALFIRMSCANRESOLVETHISPROBLEMTHERECLASSIFICATIONOFFIRMSINTOSTRATEGICGROUPSMCGEEANDTHOMAS,1986ISHELPINGTOSHOWUSTHATTHETYPEOFSTRATEGICBEHAVIOURISNOTANIDIOSYNCRATICVARIABLEBUTCANBERELATEDTOCERTAINCHARACTERISTICSOFFIRMSORGROUPSOFFIRMSFOURTH,IHAVEENDEAVOUREDT
32、OEXPLAINDIFFERENCESBETWEENMYAPPROACHANDTHATOFKIYOSHIKOJIMA,ANDIHOPEIHAVEMADEITCLEARTHATTHISISPRIMARILYADIFFERENCEINEMPHASISANDPERSPECTIVERATHERTHANOFREASONINGBETWEENUSFIFTH,IHAVEEMPHASISEDTHATASSTRATEGICASSETACQUIRINGFDIANDNONEQUITYALLIANCESHAVEBECOMEMOREIMPORTANTFORMSOFINTERNATIONALECONOMICINVOLVEM
33、ENT,SOTHEOLICONFIGURATIONOFTHEECLECTICPARADIGMREQUIRESSOMEREAPPRAISALINPARTICULAR,IACKNOWLEDGETHAT,WITHOUTKNOWINGWHETHERAFIRMISCONTEMPLATINGANFDITOEXPLOITACOMPETITIVESTRENGTHORTOOVERCOMEORCOUNTERACTACOMPETITIVEWEAKNESS,ITISDIFFICULTTOOFFERANYPREDICTIONONLYBYTREATINGTHECUMULATIVEPROCESSOFSUSTAININGAN
34、DADVANCINGTHECORECOMPETENCESOFFIRMSRATHERTHANADISCRETEANDONCEANDFORALLTRANSACTIONCANTHISCONUNDRUMBERESOLVEDTHISTHENSUGGESTSTHATINFUTURE,THEECLECTICPARADIGMMIGHTBETTERADDRESSITSELFTOEXPLAININGTHECHANGINGCHARACTERISTICSOFINTERNATIONALPRODUCTIONTHANTOITSLEVELANDCOMPOSITIONATAPARTICULARMOMENTOFTIMEFINAL
35、LY,WHILEACCEPTINGTHEREAREOTHERPARADIGMSWHICHSEEKTOOFFERGENERALEXPLANATIONSOFTHEINTERNATIONALISATIONPROCESSOFFIRMSAND/ORTHEIRINTERNATIONALMANAGEMENTSTRATEGIES,WEDONOTCONSIDERTHESETOBECOMPETINGPARADIGMSTOOUROWNMANAGERIALRELATEDPARADIGMS,FOREXAMPLE,AREINTERESTEDINEXPLAININGTHEBEHAVIOUROFMANAGERSINHARNE
36、SSINGANDUTILISINGSCARCEANDNONIRRITABLERESOURCES,NOTTHEOVERALLLEVELANDPATTERNOFFDIORMNESACTIVITYORCHANGESTOSAMEORGANISATIONALPARADIGMSAREDIRECTEDTOEVALUATINGTHECOSTSANDBENEFITSOFALTERNATIVEINSTITUTIONALMECHANISMSFORORGANISINGAGIVENSETOFRESOURCESANDCAPABILITIES,INDEPENDENTLYOFTHELOCATIONOFTHESEASSETSP
37、ARADIGMSOFFEREDBYMARKETINGSCHOLARSUSUALLYFOCUSONTHEPROCESSAND/ORFORMOFINTERNATIONALMARKETENTRYAND/ORGROWTHTECHNOLOGICALLYANDNETWORKRELATEDPARADIGMSOFINTERNATIONALPRODUCTIONCOMENEARESTTOOUROWNAPPROACH,BUTCANNOTCOMFORTABLYEXPLAINSOMEKINDSOFFDIINDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESANDINSOMESERVICESECTORSWITHAFEWEXCEPTI
38、ONSMODERNPARADIGMSOFINTERNATIONALTRADEIGNOREORDOWNPLAYTHESIGNIFICANCEOFFIRMSPECIFICADVANTAGESFINANCERELATEDPARADIGMSCANOFFERONLYLIMITEDINSIGHTSINTOTHEGROWTHOFCORPORATENETWORKSANDCROSSBORDERSTRATEGICALLIANCESWECONCLUDETHEN,THATANADDONDYNAMICCOMPONENTTOTHEECLECTICPARADIGM,ANEXTENSIONOFITSCONSTITUENTPA
39、RTSTOEMBRACEASSETAUGMENTINGFDIANDCROSSBORDERNONEQUITYVENTURES,ANDAMOREEXPLICITACKNOWLEDGEMENTOFINCREASINGROLEOFTHEACCESSOFOWNERSHIPOFRESOURCESANDCAPABILITIESCANDOMUCHTOUPHOLDITSPOSITIONASTHEDOMINANTANALYTICALFRAMEWORKFOREXAMININGTHEDETERMINANTSOFMNEACTIVITYWEBELIEVETHATRECENTTECHNOLOGICALANDECONOMIC
40、EVENTS,ANDTHEEMERGENCEOFNEWEXPLANATIONSOFMNEACTIVITYHAVEADDEDTO,RATHERTHANSUBTRACTEDFROM,THEROBUSTNESSOFTHEPARADIGMWHILEACCEPTINGTHAT,INSPITEOFITSECLECTICISM,THEREMAYBESOMEKINDSOFFOREIGNOWNEDVALUEADDEDACTIVITIESWHICHDONOTFITCOMFORTABLYINTOITSCONSTRUCTION,WEDOBELIEVETHATITCONTINUESTOMEETMOSTOFTHECRIT
41、ERIAOFAGOODPARADIGMANDTHATITISNOTYETAPPROACHINGITSOWNCREATIVEDESTRUCTIONFOSS,1996译文兼容并蓄的国际生产折衷范式过去、现在和未来约翰邓宁摘要本文介绍自二十世纪五十年代中期至今国际生产的折衷范式的起源及演变进程,其中以跨国公司活动和全球经济状况不断变化的特点作为研究对象。通过研究得出结论外国直接投资国际生产的折衷范式仍是一个强大而稳健、内容框架完善的理论模式。关键词折衷范式;外国直接投资;跨国公司的策略;国际生产;联盟国际生产折衷范式的起源国际生产折衷范式(起初称之为兼收并蓄理论),首次提出是1976年在斯德哥尔摩诺
42、贝尔的研讨会上,但是它的起源可以追溯到50年代中期。当时,我在写博士论文,是关于英国的制造业中美国的直接投资的情况研究,论文后来被出版成书(邓宁,1958年)。此前的罗斯托斯(1948)、弗兰克尔(1955),以及一些英美研究表明,美国制造业的劳动平均生产率是英国的2至5倍。这个现象在我的意识里产生了这样的疑问这是资源要素差异在生产率差异的反映,还是一种更为熟练的生产方式经过研究后,我认为,至少在一定程度上,美国的企业的经理具备着一种组织和利用资源并能跨区域经行运营的能力。当时我的博士论文这么假设如果卓越生产力完全是源于管理上的关系,美国的制造业母公司及其在英国分支机构,至少执行同样的组织管理
43、与运行,共享资源,以致在价格上大大低于其竞争对手。随着生产力的差异,在空间上母公司转让无形资产,我将这推定为其掌握的所有权的特定效果。但是,如果美国在英国的子公司在英国没有得比竞争对手更好的成绩,我则假设这将是由于美国经济的不可转让的特点所导致。这是我所说的任何区域生产率差异内容。正如设想预测那样,我发现美国子公司的生产并没有像其母公司那样运作的,但其劳动生产率均高出当地的竞争对手很多。这就表明,至少在20世纪50年代,至少,英美生产率差异的部分可以由所在地按所有制的具体特点(L)来解释。然而我没有对这个问题作跟进的研究,即美国自己本国的公司(O)优势在何种程度上才体现出来也没有试图区分那些被
44、看作是美国的直接投资在英国,以及美国那些拥有在外国公司之前从事生产优势(O)所产生的后果。在70年代初,我以公司的所有权和其区位优势为主题,撰写过两篇论文。第一篇论文(邓宁,1972),时研究有关英国加入欧洲共同市场(ECM)可能产生的影响。在论文中,我认为,关税壁垒的取消将导致一些对外的经济活动地点的调整,也有可能影响到在不同国家起源的公司的竞争实力与地位,以及ECM的生产资料所有制。第二篇论文(邓宁,1973年),主要是在对过去十年国界以外的各种公司各种经济行为活动的解释。在这一文里,我力图整理出了国际生产的决定因素产业组织和区位优势。论文中提到,海默(1960;1976)指出,首先是要解
45、释为什么外国公司的分支机构与国内企业可以竞争并成功地占据了国内企业原来的市场,其次是解释为什么外国企业的需求选择由国外市场供应,而不是国内基地。1975年,我被邀请出席一个在斯德哥尔摩举行的研讨会,关于诺贝尔经济活动的,这一份文件于1976年6月发表了。这次研讨会是由勃特尔组织,有国际著名的经济学家、经济地理学、区域科学家等参加。这次研讨会是关于一个国家的国际经济活动的分布变化因素的评估以及具体影响,但出发点是对我的论文一个国家的经济空间,可以在两方面考虑。首先是其生产的国界其对生产资料所有制独立输出值。第二个是由它自己的公司产生的输出,包括其国界之外产生的那部分。这进一步区分了国家的竞争优势
46、,其中我在一直强调我的著明的那几家公司。在我的早期的研究,包括另一个可供选择的公司,在阐述了企业国界以外的活动,关于O和L这两因素的拓展研究发现,关系到企业的生产组织方式、利用资源的能力、其管辖范围内的集群优势和可以获取不同的区域市场的信息。换句话说,为了充分解释企业海外增值活动的模式,另一方面不得不解释为什么这些企业选择自己内部独特的优势来产生,而非购置或销售这些,或者他们的权利,通过开放市场。这些优势就是我提到内部化(I)的优点,这些成为了所有权、位区位优势和内部化(OLI),用于解释地理范围和增加值是由多国企业的活动(跨国公司)。在研究多国企业未来进程(1976),同事彼得大大巴克利以及
47、我在读大学的马克卡森,对我有很大的影响。在1972年,我读了由JC麦克马纳斯文章盖伊帕凯特的关于多国公司和民族国家的企业活动的编辑成册(1972年),我第一次接触到内部化的概念适用于多国企业。一年后,在访问瑞典乌普萨拉,曾与瑞典经济学家尼尔斯伦德格伦,沿着相同的路线思想进行过交流,他试图解释瑞典的外国直接投资增长(FDI)。我认为他的研究是一个有益补充,对我在解释国外生产的决定因素的方法提供新的见解。在过去的二十五年,我都受益于对我的国际生产折衷范式提出很大意见的朋友和同事。我先前的研究工作,倾向于那些优点,即更多的O优势,而不是作为一个市场更新换代活动,赋予其自己的优势,利用分层的方式产生。
48、正如我所出版的一书中跨国企业和全球经济(邓宁,1993年),我还是比较喜欢的O优势。我毫不犹豫地承认,允许外国企业从事生产,任何方式都是一种资产的创收,这些后果可能出现的一个跨境市场取代活动的直接后果。即使是这样的话,我相信,一个公司的能力,受益于这种活动必须与它所拥有的资产之前的内部化行为。共同治理的经济现象出现,是因为一个新的公司整合现有的活动而导致。例如,一个公司,目前在A国生产,并相信范围经济、分散风险的好处,它会扩展到在B国生产,获取多样化。一个公司,从规模、范围或跨国界的经济利益考虑,除了现有的投资,并果断地进行新的投资,公司通过外国收购获得先进的最新技术或管理能力。因为它相信可以
49、同时使用这方式,在保护或增强其竞争地位的核心竞争力、现有资产等。这似乎是一个明显的观点。但无论如何,产生效益之间的收益差别是从内在化现有资产市场出现和那些从协调现有资产的新资产,这可能是这些资产的取得模式,是一个重要问题。对未来趋势的预测首先,尽管我有时参考个别企业的折衷范式,但是我的兴趣主要集中在解释从某一国家或国家集团的所有权企业的国际生产。正因为如此,我认为,单纯地比较折衷范式与企业内在化及其他理论的优点和缺点,不是恰当的研究。第二,虽然我认为,一些具有O独特的优势的企业直接投资,跨越国界占领中间产品市场是其外部内在化的结果。然而,本人认为有必要把它作为一个优势的收益、作为以何种方式实现这一优势内部化进行研究讨论。因为这种行为使得在很内部化的优势相相对于非内部化的企业具备更多内在化优势。第三,国际生产折衷模式,按照最初的设想是不适合用于解释国际生产的动态。不过,我认为它可以帮助解释为什么一个产业或国家的国际投资组合在两个不同时点上的连接可能、外源性或内生变量需要引进,包括战略以及如何将这些反过来又影响到OLI的配置更改。在宏观层面上,我已经说明了IDP如何从国内流离出去,在一个行业或微观层面,只有个别企业专项详细的检查可以解决这个问题。重新分类成组的企业战略(马科阁、托马斯,1986年),也涉及到企业的某些特性(或企业群体)。这些研究正在向我们显