1、本科毕业论文外文翻译外文题目THESOURCESOFINNOVATION出处UNIVERSITYOFCALIFORNIA作者ERICVONHIPPEL1OVERVIEWITHASLONGBEENASSUMEDTHATPRODUCTINNOVATIONSARETYPICALLYDEVELOPEDBYPRODUCTMANUFACTURERSBECAUSETHISASSUMPTIONDEALSWITHTHEBASICMATTEROFWHOTHEINNOVATORIS,ITHASINEVITABLYHADAMAJORIMPACTONINNOVATIONRELATEDRESEARCH,ONFIRMSMA
2、NAGEMENTOFRESEARCHANDDEVELOPMENT,ANDONGOVERNMENTINNOVATIONPOLICYHOWEVER,ITNOWAPPEARSTHATTHISBASICASSUMPTIONISOFTENWRONGINTHISBOOKIBEGINBYPRESENTINGASERIESOFSTUDIESSHOWINGTHATTHESOURCESOFINNOVATIONVARYGREATLYINSOMEFIELDS,INNOVATIONUSERSDEVELOPMOSTINNOVATIONSINOTHERS,SUPPLIERSOFINNOVATIONRELATEDCOMPON
3、ENTSANDMATERIALSARETHETYPICALSOURCESOFINNOVATIONINSTILLOTHERFIELDS,CONVENTIONALWISDOMHOLDSANDPRODUCTMANUFACTURERSAREINDEEDTHETYPICALINNOVATORSNEXT,IEXPLOREWHYTHISVARIATIONINTHEFUNCTIONALSOURCESOFINNOVATIONOCCURSANDHOWITMIGHTBEPREDICTEDFINALLY,IPROPOSEANDTESTSOMEIMPLICATIONSOFREPLACINGAMANUFACTURERAS
4、INNOVATORASSUMPTIONWITHAVIEWOFTHEINNOVATIONPROCESSASPREDICTABLYDISTRIBUTEDACROSSUSERS,MANUFACTURERS，SUPPLIERS,ANDOTHERS2VARIATIONSINTHEFUNCTIONALSOURCEOFINNOVATIONWEHAVESEENTHATUSERSSOMETIMESINNOVATEBUTDOTHEYALWAYSORDOESTHEFUNCTIONALSOURCEOFINNOVATIONVARYINSOMEMANNERBETWEENUSERS,MANUFACTURERS,SUPPLI
5、ERS,ANDOTHERSTOBEABLETOANSWERTHESEQUESTIONS,WEMUSTHAVEDATAONTHESOURCESOFINNOVATIONCHARACTERISTICOFATLEASTAFEWMORETYPESOFINNOVATIONTHEREFORE,MYSTUDENTSANDIUNDERTOOKTHESIXBRIEFSTUDIESIWILLDESCRIBEINTHISCHAPTEREACHOFTHESIXSTUDIESEXAMINESADIFFERENTTYPEOFINNOVATIONTHEFIRSTFOURIWILLREVIEWCONSIDERINNOVATIO
6、NCATEGORIESCHOSENTOMATCHMYOWNAREASOFTECHNICALKNOWLEDGEANDTHOSEOFTHEGRADUATESTUDENTSPARTICIPATINGINOURPROJECTTHECHOICEOFTOPICSFORTHELASTTWOSTUDIESIWILLREVIEWWASMADEONADIFFERENTBASIS,WHICHIWILLSPELLOUTWHENDISCUSSINGTHEMEACHSTUDYUSESIDENTICALMETHODS,SOTHATTHEIRRESULTSARECOMMENSURABLE,ANDEACHISTIGHTLYFO
7、CUSEDONASINGLEISSUEWHATARETHESOURCESOFINNOVATIONTHESESTUDIESFINDTHATTHEFUNCTIONALSOURCEOFINNOVATIONDIFFERSSTRIKINGLYACROSSTHESEVERALTYPESOFPRODUCTANDPROCESSINNOVATIONIHAVEEXPLOREDMANUFACTURERSASINNOVATORSTHETRACTORSHOVELTHETRACTORSHOVELISAVERYUSEFULMACHINEOFTENUSEDINTHECONSTRUCTIONINDUSTRYINITIALCON
8、VERSATIONSWITHEXPERTSINCONSTRUCTIONLEDUSTOSUSPECTTHATUSERSWOULDINFACTBEINNOVATORSINTRACTORSHOVELSEVERYONEHADASTORYTOTELLABOUTACONSTRUCTIONFIRMTHAT,FACINGANUNUSUALCHALLENGEANDATIGHTDEADLINE,PERFORMEDANOVERNIGHTMODIFICATIONTOSOMEITEMOFCONSTRUCTIONEQUIPMENTTHATSOLVEDTHEPROBLEMANDSAVEDTHEDAYINFACT,HOWEV
9、ER,TRACTORSHOVELMANUFACTURERSTURNEDOUTTOBETHEDOMINANTSOURCEOFCOMMERDALLYSUCCESSFULTRACTORSHOVELINNOVATIONSTHETRACTORSHOVELCANBEVISUALIZEDASAFOURWHEELED,RUBBERTIREDMACHINEWITHALARGE,MOVABLESCOOPMOUNTEDATTHEFRONTENDITISNORMALLYUSEDFOREXCAVATIONANDOTHERCONSTRUCTIONTASKSASWELLASFORTHEGENERALHANDLINGOFBU
10、LKMATERIALS,RANGINGFROMCOALTOCHEMICALSTOSOYBEANSHOUSEHOLDERSWHOLIVEINSTATESWITHSEVEREWINTERSMAYHAVEACLEARVISUALIMAGEOFTRACTORSHOVELSTHEYARETYPICALLYTHEMACHINESTHATDIGOUTROADSAFTERORDINARYTRUCKSHAVEBEENHALTEDBYDEEPSNOWTRACTORSHOVELSAREBUILTINMANYSIZESTODAY,ONECANFINDLARGETRACTORSHOVELSWITHMASSIVE,20C
11、UYDSCOOPSWORKINGINOPENPITMINESLOADINGOREINTOTRUCKSONECANALSOFINDSMALLTRACTORSHOVELSWORKINGINWAREHOUSESSHIFTINGVARIOUSMATERIALSFROMPLACETOPLACE1CUYDATATIMEAPPROXIMATELY41,000TRACTORSHOVELSOFALLSIZESWEREMANUFACTUREDINTHEUNITEDSTATESIN1980,WITHANAGGREGATEVALUEOF15BILLIONDOLLARSTHESAMPLETHEBASICTRACTORS
12、HOVELWASDEVELOPEDIN1939THESAMPLECONSISTSOFTHATBASICINNOVATIONPLUSALLSIGNIFICANTIMPROVEMENTSTOTHETRACTORSHOVELCOMMERCIALIZEDPRIORTO19704THEMAJORIMPROVEMENTSCATEGORYINTABLE33CONSISTSOFINNOVATIONSTHATAREINSTALLEDINVIRTUALLYALLTRACTORSHOVELSANDTHATAREOFVALUETOESSENTIALLYALLUSERSFOREXAMPLE,ARTICULATION,A
13、NINNOVATIONTHATHINGESTHETRACTORSHOVELINTHEMIDDLEANDGREATLYIMPROVESSTEERINGANDTRACTION,ISVALUABLETOESSENTIALLYALLUSERSANDISNOWINCORPORATEDINALMOSTALLTRACTORSHOVELSINCONTRAST,THESPECIALPURPOSEACCESSORIESLISTEDAREINNOVATIONSTHATAREONLYOFVALUEINSOMESPECIALIZEDTASKSTHUS,THELENGTHENEDBOOMARMSAREUSEDPRIMAR
14、ILYBYTHOSEWHOLOADHIGHSIDEDTRUCKS,WHEREASTHELOGGRAPPLESAREPRIMARILYUSEDBYLUMBERCOMPANIESINTHEIRLOGGINGOPERATIONSOFCOURSE,MANYOTHERSPECIALPURPOSEACCESSORIESEXIST,RANGINGFROMASPHALTPAYERSTOSNOWBLOWERSTHEFIVECHOSENFORSTUDYSERVERELATIVELYLARGEUSERGROUPSFINDINGTHESOURCESOFTRACTORSHOVELINNOVATIONASCANCLEAR
15、LYBESEENINTABLE34,ALMOSTALLOFTHEINNOVATIONSSTUDIEDWEREDEVELOPEDBYTRACTORSHOVELMANUFACTURERSINTWOINSTANCESTHESEINNOVATINGMANUFACTURERSWEREWHATISKNOWNINTHETRADEASALLIEDMANUFACTURERSORALLIEDVENDORSTHESEAREFIRMSTHATMAKEASPECIALTYOFMANUFACTURINGATTACHMENTSFORTRACTORSHOVELSANDSIMILARMACHINESSOMETIMESTHEYA
16、RESIMPLYEQUIPMENTDEALERSWHORUNASMALLMANUFACTURINGOPERATIONONTHESIDETRACTORSHOVELMANUFACTURERSWILLOFTENCOOPERATEWITHSUCHFIRMSBECAUSETHEACCESSORIESTHEYBUILDENHANCETHEUTILITYOFTHEBASICTRACTORSHOVELBYTAILORINGITTOVARIOUSSPECIALIZEDUSERSONLYONEINNOVATIONSTUDIEDWASCOMPLETELYDEVELOPEDBYAUSERTHEATTACHMENTCO
17、UPLERSYSTEM,WHICHWASDEVELOPEDBYAFARMERFORUSEONHISFARMBUTUSERSDIDSOMEINNOVATIONWORKRELATEDTOSOMEOFTHEOTHERSPECIALATTACHMENTSSTUDIEDSEETHEAPPENDIXFOREXAMPLE,BEFORESTEELSHODTIRESWEREDEVELOPEDBYAMANUFACTURERTHEYAREUSEDTOPROTECTTRACTORSHOVELTIRESFROMCUTS，SOMETRACTORSHOVELUSERSWEREPROTECTINGTHETIRESOFTHEI
18、RMACHINESBYWRAPPINGTHEMWITHHEAVYSTEELCHAINSMANUFACTURERSASINNOVATORSENGINEERINGTHERMOPLASTICSENGINEERINGPLASTICSARETRIUMPHSOFORGANICCHEMISTRYANDMOSTWERECREATEDAFTERWORLDWARIITHETERMENGINEERINGPLASTICSIMPLYMEANSAPLASTICTHATCANBEUSEDINDEMANDINGENGINEERINGAPPLICATIONSEXAMPLESOFSUCHAPPLICADONSAREPARTSPL
19、ACEDUNDERMECHANICALSTRESSORMECHANICALSHOCKEG，GEARSORMALLETHEADSORPARTSPLACEDINDEMANDINGTEMPERATURESAND/ORCHEMICALENVIRONMENTSEG，PARTSUSEDINAUTOMOBILEENGINESPRIORTOTHEADVENTOFENGINEERINGPLASTICS,SUCHPARTSCOULDONLYHAVEBEENMADEOFAMATERIALLIKEMETALORGLASSNOWTHEYCANOFTENBEMADEBETTERANDMORECHEAPLYFROMPLAS
20、TICALLENGINEERINGPLASTICSAREPRODUCEDINLOWVOLUMEBUTWITHARELATIVELYHIGHSELLINGPRICEWHENJUDGEDAGAINSTSUCHBULKPLASTICSASPOLYETHYLENEIN1976ENGINEERINGPLASTICSCOUNTEDFORABOUT2BYBUTACCOUNTEDFORABOUT6OFTHETOTALVALUEVOLUMEOFALLPLASTICSPRODUCEDOFALLPLASTICSPRODUCEDSTHESAMPLETHESAMPLEOFENGINEERINGPLASTICSINNOV
21、ATIONSCONSISTSOFALLCOMMERCIALLYSUCCESSFULENGINEERINGTHERMOPLASTICMONOMERSINTRODUCEDTOTHEMARKETAFTER1955THATACHIEVEDSALESOFATLEAST10MILLIONLBSANNUALLYBY1975THISDEFINITIONOFCOMMERCIALSUCCESSWASSUGGESTEDBYPLASTICSMANUFACTURERINTERVIEWEESTHEFIVEENGINEERINGTHERMOPLASTICSINNOVATIONSTHATMETTHESESAMPLESELEC
22、TIONCRITERIAAREIDENTIFIEDINTABLE35FINDINGSTHESOURCESOFENGINEERINGTHERMOPLASTICSINNOVATIONASCANBESEENINTABLE36,“FOURANDONEHALF“OFTHEFIVEENGINEERINGPLASTICSINTHESAMPLEWEREDEVELOPEDBYPLASTICSMANUFACTURERSTHUS,THISVERYSMALLSAMPLESHOWSASTRONGMANUFACTURERASINNOVATORPATTERNTHEINNOVATIONCODEDAS50USERDEVELOP
23、EDAND50MANUFACTURERDEVELOPEDWASPOLYCARBONATERESINLEXAN，WHICHWASDEVELOPEDBYGENERALELECTRICIN1960GEISBOTHAMAJORPRODUCERANDAMAJORUSEROFPOLYCARBONATEINTHEPERIODIMMEDIATELYFOLLOWINGCOMMERCIALIZATIONWHENPRODUCTIONCAPACITYWASLOWRELATIVETOTHATOFTODAY,GEPERSONNELESTIMATETHATASMUCHAS50OFGEPOLYCARBONATEPRODUCT
24、IONWASCONSUMEDINTERNALLYCURRENTLY,GECONSUMESONLYASMALLPERCENTAGEOFANNUALPOLYCARBONATEPRODUCTIONSEETHEAPPENDIXFORFURTHERDETAILSHAPPILY,CASESSUCHASGE,WHEREASINGLEFIRMHOLDSMORETHANONEFUNCTIONALROLEWITHRESPECTTOANINNOVATION,AREVERYRAREINOURSAMPLESWHENDUALORMULTIPLEROLESAREHELDBYTHESAMEINNOVATINGFIRMORIN
25、DIVIDUAL,SEVERECODINGPROBLEMSEMERGEOFTEN,ONECANNOTDETERMINEWHICHROLETHEINNOVATORWAS“REALLY“MOTIVATEDBYDURINGTHEDEVELOPMENTWORKMANUFACTURERSASINNOVATORSPLASTICSADDITIVESPLASTICSADDITIVESAREUSEDTOMODIFYTHEPROPERTIESOFABASICPOLYMERINDESIREDWAYSANENORMOUSNUMBEROFADDITIVESEXIST,ANDTHEYAREGENERALLYCATEGOR
26、IZEDACCORDINGTOTHEFUNCTIONTHEYPERFORMTHUS,THEREARECOLORINGAGENTS,FLAMERETARDANTS,FUNGICIDES,FILLINGMATERIALS,REINFORCINGMATERIALS,ANDSOONEACHOFTHESECATEGORIESCONTAINSANUMBEROFMATERIALSOFVARYINGPROPERTIESTOSERVETHESPECIFIEDFUNCTIONIDECIDEDTOEXAMINETHESOURCESOFINNOVATIONINTWOCATEGORIESOFPLASTICSADDITI
27、VESPLASTICIZERSANDULTRAVIOLETUVSTABILIZERSTHESETWOADDITIVETYPESADDRESSMARKETSOFVERYDIFFERENTSIZEIN1983MORETHAN600,000METRICTONSOFPLASTICIZERSOFALLTYPESWERESOLDBINTHATSAMEYEAR,APPROXIMATELY2300METRICTONSOFUVSTABILIZERSOFALLTYPESWERESOLDIDONOTHAVEDATAONDOLLARVOLUMESINTHESETWOCATEGORIESULTRAVIOLETSTABI
28、LIZERPRICESARETYPICALLYSOMEWHATHIGHERTHANPLASTICIZERPRICES,HOWEVERPLASTICIZERSAREMATERIALSTHATAREINCORPORATEDINTOPLASTICSTOIMPROVEPROPERTIESSUCHASWORKABILITYANDFLEXIBILITYWITHOUTPLASTICIZERS,PLASTICSSUCHASPOLYVINYLCHLORIDEPVCWOULDBEHARDANDBRITTLEULTRAVIOLETSTABILIZERSAREADDEDTOPLASTICSTOPROTECTTHEMF
29、ROMTHEEFFECTOFULTRAVIOLETLIGHTSUCHASTHATPRESENTINSUNLIGHTWITHOUTSUCHPROTECTION,SUSCEPTIBLEPLASTICSWOULDQUICKLYDISCOLOR,BECOMEBRITTLE,ORSHOWOTHERUNDESIRABLECHANGESTHESAMPLETHESAMPLEOFPLASTICIZESANDULTRAVIOLETSTABILIZERINNOVATIONSINCLUDEDALLCOMMERCIALIZEDCOMPOUNDSTHATMETFOURCRITERIAFIRST,THEADDITIVEWA
30、SAPPROPRIATEFORUSEWITHATLEASTONEOFTHEFOURLARGESTPLASTICSINCOMMERCIALUSEPOLYETHYLENE,POLYVINYLCHLORIDE,POLYSTYRENE,ANDPOLYPROPYLENESECOND,THEADDITIVEMUSTHAVEBEENFIRSTCOMMERCIALIZEDAFTERTHEWORLDWARIIAREQUIREMENTADDEDUNDERTHEASSUMPTIONTHATDATAONMORERECENTINNOVATIONSWOULDBEOFHIGHQUALITYTHIRD,THEADDITIVE
31、MUSTHAVEBEENCOMMERCIALLYSUCCESSFUL，THATIS,ITHADTOHAVEBEENSOLDONTHEOPENMARKETANDREGARDEDASASUCCESSFULPRODUCTBYEXPERTINTERVIEWEESINTHEADDITIVESINDUSTRYFOURTH,THEADDITIVEWASINCLUDEDONLYIFITREPRESENTEDANIMPROVEMENTOVERPREVIOUSLYCOMMERCIALIZEDADDITIVESONAPROPERTYOFIMPORTANCETOUSERSOTHERTHANCOST,FOREXAMPL
32、E,DECREASEDTOXICITYORINCREASEDEASEOFUSETHESAMPLEOFPLASTICIZERSANDULTRAVIOLETSTABILIZERSSELECTEDASMEETINGTHESECRITERIAISIDENTIFIEDINTABLE37FINDINGSTHESOURCESOFPLASTICSADDITIVESINNOVATIONASCANBESEENINTABLE38,MORETHAN90OFTHEPLASTICSADDITIVESINNOVADONSSTUDIEDWEREDEVELOPEDBYFIRMSTHATMANUFACTUREDTHEMINTER
33、ESTINGLY,TWOUVSTABILIZERINNOVATIONSCODEDASMANUFACTURERDEVELOPEDSHOWEDAPATTERNIHADNOTFOUNDBEFOREASINGLEMANUFACTURERDIDNOTDEVELOPTHEINNOVATIONONITSOWNINSTEAD,ANASSOCIATIONOFMANUFACTURERSFUNDEDTHEREQUIREDRDWORKATAPRIVATERESEARCHFIRMSUPPLIERSASINNOVATORSUPTOTHISPOINTINTHERESEARCHONTHEFUNCTIONALSOURCESOF
34、INNOVATION,MYSTUDENTSANDIHADCONDUCTEDSIXSTUDIESINTOTALANDHADONLYOBSERVEDINNOVATIONBYUSERSAND/ORMANUFACTURERSBUTEXPERIENCEGAINEDINTHESESTUDIESWASLEADINGMETOSPECULATEASTOTHECAUSEOFTHESTRIKINGVARIATIONSINTHEFUNCTIONALSOURCEOFINNOVATIONTHATWEHADBEENOBSERVINGIWILLDISCUSSTHISMATTERINTHENEXTCHAPTERFORPRESE
35、NTPURPOSES,HOWEVER,LETMEJUSTSAYMYSPECULATIONWASTHATINNOVATIONAPPEAREDTOBE“CAUSED“BYPOTENTIALINNOVATORSRELATIVEPREINNOVATIONEXPECTATIONSOFINNOVATIONRELATEDBENEFITAND,THEREFORE,ITSEEMEDTOMETHATINNOVATIONINANYNUMBEROFFUNCTIONALLOCISHOULDEXIST,GIVENONLYTHEPROPERLEVELANDDISTRIBUTIONOFBENEFITEXPECTATIONSS
36、O,PIETERVANDERWERFPHDCANDIDATEANDISETOUTDELIBERATELYTOFINDINNOVATIONINATHIRDFUNCTIONALLOCUS,SUPPLIERSSUPPLIERSAREFIRMSORINDIVIDUALSWHOSERELATIONSHIPTOANINNOVATIONISTHATOFSUPPLYINGCOMPONENTSORMATERIALSREQUIREDINTHEINNOVATIONSMANUFACTUREORUSEITSEEMEDREASONABLEINAROUGHWAYTHATSUPPLIERSMIGHTDEVELOPANINNO
37、VATIONTHATTHEYDIDNOTEXPECTTOUSEORSELLIFTHATINNOVATIONWOULDRESULTINALARGEINCREASEINDEMANDFORSOMETHINGTHEYDIDWANTTOSELLTHUS,GASUTILITIESMIGHTDEVELOPNOVELGASAPPLIANCESANDGIVETHEDESIGNSAWAYTOAPPLIANCEMANUFACTURERS,HOPINGTOCAPTURERENTSFROMINCREASEDGASSALES,RATHERTHANFROMMAKINGORUSINGTHEINNOVATIVEAPPLIANC
38、EITSELFBASEDONTHISLOGIC,WELOOKEDFORINNOVATIONCATEGORIESTHATMIGHTCONTAINSUPPLIERINNOVATIONBYLOOKINGFORPROCESSESUSINGAGREATDEALOFRELATIVELYEXPENSIVEMATERIALORCOMPONENTSASANINPUT创新资源ERICVONHIPPEL一概述产品创新一直被产品制造者假定为象征性的发展。因为假定的创新者的基础原因是它不可避免在创新相关研究和企业管理的研究和发展，政府创新政策有一个主要的影响。然而，现在面临的是最基础的假设通常是错的。在这本书里我以一系
39、列创新资源的广泛研究的变化为开头。在一些领域，创新使用者推动了大部分的创新。另外，创新相关元件和材料的提供者是创新的典型资源。还有另外一些领域，传统智慧掌握者和产品生产者事实上是典型的创新者。接着，我探索了为什么这些创新资源出现不断变化以及它怎么样被预测到。最后，我提出并且测试了一个创新制造者假设的一些含义，即创新过程分布在使用者，制造者，供给者，和其他。1、创新官能资源的变化我们已经看到使用者有时候会创新。但是为什么他们会这样做或者说是不是创新官能资源的变化是在使用者，制造者，供给者，和其他人呢为了能回答这些问题，我们必须有一些有象征性的创新特征的数据。因此，我的学生和我从事了六个主要的研究
40、，在下面我将阐述。六个中的每一个都验证了一个不同的创新形式。首先我将回顾并思考创新种类，然后选择符合我技术知识和那些毕业生参与项目的领域研究。每一个研究用恒定的方式，那么他们的结论就会有公度，且每一个都能紧紧贴着一个主题什么是创新资源2、制造者创新牵引机铲牵引机铲是在建筑工业中非常有用的机器。最开始专家之间的谈话是怀疑使用者即是牵引机铲的创造者。每一个都有一个故事在建筑企业里，面对一个不寻常的挑战和一个最后期限，不得不进行通宵修改建筑项目的设备去解决问题。事实上，然后，牵引机铲能被具体为一个四轮，用橡皮绑着，前端还有一个巨大，可动的铲子的机器。这是通常用于挖掘和其他建筑任务像装修巨大的施工材料
41、。美国的房地产商在严重的衰退期有一个清晰可见的牵引机铲他们是典型的在卡车被积雪堵在路上时挖开道路的机器。牵引机铲有不同的大小。今天，我们都发现巨大的牵引机铲大概有20立方工作在露天的煤矿。我们也能发现小的牵引机铲在仓库里面移动各种各样的原料。1980年在美国将近41000牵引机铲被制造，总计15亿美元。范例基础的牵引机铲是在1939年发展的。这个样本由基础的创新加上所有重要的改良。主要的改良种类在表33，包括牵引机铲安装创新，这本质上来说是所有使用者的价值。例如，在牵引机中间链条的改良极大提高了机制控制和牵引力，并且如今已经是所有牵引机铲的标准。相对的，特别零件的创新仅仅是特别需要的生产任务才
42、显现价值。因此，长机械手臂被主要用于装卸比较高的卡车或者用于测井的任务。当然，许多特殊目的零部件的出现，使牵引机从柏油路走上被雪封堵的路。发现牵引机铲创新的资源在图34里我们可以清楚的看到，几乎所有创新研究，都是被制造者发展起来的。在这两个例子里面，这些创新制造者在制造联盟或者卖方联盟里都是很有名气的。这些企业使他们的牵引机在相似机器上附加上了牵引机铲。有时，他们只是简单的机器设备商人。只有一个创新研究被一个使用者完全发展像这个附加的车钩技术，就是被一个农民在他的农场里使用发展而来的。但是使用者有些时候会有一些其他方面相关的创新研究。例如，之前钢胎被一个制造者发展而来，是因为牵引机的使用者为了
43、保护他们的轮胎而在他们的外胎上套上钢链引发的。制造者的创新机器热塑性，机器塑料都是有机化学的成果。且，大部分是在第二次世界大战后。机器塑料象征着塑料能够在机器上得到应用。更早的机器塑料的来临，是由金属和玻璃制成。现在，我们都造出更好更便宜的塑料。当人们认定这个塑料为聚乙烯的时候，所有工程塑料是生产很少，但是却有很好的销路。样本工程塑料创新包括所有成攻商业工程热塑性单体的引入市场，并在1955年后，每年取得至少1000万镑收入。这五个工程学热塑性单体的创新选择标准与图35里相一致。发现工程热塑性资源的创新当我们看到图36，五个工程塑料样本中有“四个和一半”是由塑料制造者开发。因此，这些非常小的样
44、本显示了一个非常明显的制造者创新的画面。创新被操纵成50使用者和50制造者是1960年的GE公司的聚碳酸酯。GE即是聚碳酸酯的一个主要使用者也是最大的生产者。在那个时期的商业化与本产品容量并没有像今天那样紧密联系，GE个人估计有50的生产是给自己使用。令人高兴的是，像GE这样的企业充当了不只一个有影响的角色，还渴望创新，在我们的样本里是非常少见的。多样的角色被一个创新企业或者个人所掌握，有一个问题出现。通常，不能决定哪个角色在发展中是真真动机明确的。3、制造者创新塑料添加物塑料添加物通常被用于改变一个聚合物的属性。一个巨大的添加物的数字存在，并且根据它们的表现有非常多的种类。所以有着重与色彩，
45、抗菌，填充，强化的材料。每一种都包含很多各种材料的属性以达到特殊的官能。我决定去检测两种塑料添加物的创新塑化剂和紫外线稳定剂。这两个添加物在市场的份额差别很大。塑化剂是一种添加进去使可加工性和弹性增加的材料。没有塑化剂，聚乙烯塑料将会很硬也很脆。紫外线稳定剂是防止太阳中的紫外线影响。没有这种材料，敏感的塑料在阳光下会很快变色，变脆，或者其他不想要的改变。样本可塑性和紫外线稳定性包括所有商业化标准的混合物。首先，这个添加物是适用于至少一种拥有很大市场份额的塑料。第二，这个添加物必须在二战后机器设备里被使用，因为越近代的创新越能显现高的质量，第三，这个添加物必须是商业化成功的，这就是说已经在公开市
46、场上出售，并被认为在添加物这一块是成功的高新产品工业。第四，添加物要与先前的商业化的添加物在对于重要性方面有提高，而不是成本上面，如，减少毒性或者增加舒适性。这个塑化剂和紫外线稳定剂样本被选来作为与图37一致的标准。发现塑料添加物创新资源像图38所显示，超过90的塑料添加物创新研究是由生产的企业开发而来的。有趣的是，两个UV稳定剂是由制造者开发，这是我过去所没有发现的一个单个生产者不能开发创新资源，相反，一系列的生产者提供资金在一个私人研究企业。4、供给者创新对于在创新资源研究这点，我的学生和我已经展开了六个研究，只发现使用者和制造者的创新。但是在这些研究中获得的研究使我深思已经被我们发现，醒
47、目的创新资源变化。我将在下章讨论这点，让我思考创新好像是由潜在的创新者产生的。而且，似乎对于我来说，创新在任何官能部位都存在。所以，PIETERVANDERWERFPHDCANDIDATE和我规定在第三个官能部位找到创新，即供给者。供给者是与创新制造和使用有关的创新元件的企业或者个体。这似乎是有道理的，在一个并不平坦的路上，需要供给者开发创新资源以达到他们希望高需求的的目的。因此，煤气功用可能使新的煤气的应用且不用设计如何适用制造商，希望从增长的煤气价格里获得租金，而不是通过使用或者制造创新工具本身获得效益。在这个方面，我寻找可能包括提供者创新的创新种类。三个创新种类似乎像在一个初步检查基础上候选者一样，且VANDERWERF检查了他们所有。因此读者会看到，上面三个所显示的供给者创新是在可以预期的条件下。
