1、本科毕业论文外文翻译外文题目TOWARDAKNOWLEDGEBASEDTHEORYOFTHEFIRM出处SCHOOLOFBUSINESS,GEORGETOWNUNIVERSITY,WASHINGTON,DC,USA作者ROBERTMGRANTTOWARDAKNOWLEDGEBASEDTHEORYOFTHEFIRMROBERTMGRANTSCHOOLOFBUSINESS,GEORGETOWNUNIVERSITY,WASHINGTON,DC,USAGIVENASSUMPTIONSABOUTTHECHARACTERISTICSOFKNOWLEDGEANDTHEKNOWLEDGEREQUIREMENT
2、SOFPRODUCTION,THEFIRMISCONCEPTUALIZEDASANINSTITUTIONFORINTEGRATINGKNOWLEDGETHEPRIMARYCONTRIBUTIONOFTHEPAPERISINEXPLORINGTHECOORDINATIONMECHANISMSTHROUGHWHICHFIRMSINTEGRATETHESPECIALISTKNOWLEDGEOFTHEIRMEMBERSINCONTRASTTOEARLIERLITERATURE,KNOWLEDGEISVIEWEDASRESIDINGWITHINTHEINDIVIDUAL,ANDTHEPRIMARYROL
3、EOFTHEORGANIZATIONISKNOWLEDGEAPPLICATIONRATHERTHANKNOWLEDGECREATIONTHERESULTINGTHEORYHASIMPLICATIOUSFORTHEBASISOFORGANIZATIONALCAPABILITY,THEPRINCIPLESOFORGANIZATIONDESIGNINPARTICULAR,THEANALYSISOFHIERARCHYANDTHEDISTRIBUTIONOFDECISIONRANKINGAUTHORITY,ANDTHEDETERMINNANTSOFTHEHORIZONTALANDVERTICALBOUN
4、DARIESOFTHEFIRMMOREGENERALLY,THEKNOWLEDGEBASEDAPPROACHSHEDSNEWLIGHTUPONCURRENTORGANIZATIONALINNOVATIONSANDTRENDSANDHASFARREACHINGIMPLICATIONSFORMANAGEMENTPRACTICEFOUDATIONTHEFOUNDATIONFORANYTHEORYOFTHEFIRMISASETOFINITIALPREMISESWHICHFORMTHEBASISFORTHELOGICALDEVELOPMENTOFPROPOSITIONSCONCERNINGTHESTRU
5、CTURE,BEHAVIOR,PERFORMANCEANDINDEED,THEVERYEXISTENCEOFFIRMSDEVELOPINGAKNOWLEDGEBASEDTHEORYOFTHEFIRMRAISESTHEISSUEWHATISKNOWLEDGESINCETHISQUESTIONHASINTRIGUEDSOMEOFTHEWORLDSGREATESTTHINKERSFROMPLATOTOPOPPERWITHOUTTHEEMERGENCEOFACLEARCONSENSUS,THISISNOTANARENAINWHICHICHOOSETOCOMPETEINTERMSOFDEFININGKN
6、OWLEDGE,ALLIOFFERBEYONDTHESIMPLETAUTOLOGYOFTHATWHICHISKNOWNISTHERECOGNITIONTHATTHEREAREMANYTYPESOFKNOWLEDGERELEVANTTOTHEFIRMFORTHEPURPOSESOFDEVELOPINGATHEORYOFTHEFIRM,MYPRIMARYTASKISTOESTABLISHTHOSECHARACTERISTICSOFKNOWLEDGEWHICHHAVECRITICALIMPLICATIONSFORMANAGEMENTTHELITERATUREONTHEANALYSISANDMANAG
7、EMENTOFKNOWLEDGEPOINTSTOTHEFOLLOWINGCHARACTERISTICSASPERTINENTTOTHEUTILIZATIONOFKNOWLEDGEWITHINTHEFIRMTOCREATEVALUETRANSFERABILITYTHERESOURCEBASEDVIEWOFTHEFIRMRECOGNIZESTHETRANSFERABILITYOFAFIRMSRESOURCESANDCAPABILITIESASACRITICALDETERMINANTOFTHEIRCAPACITYTOCONFERSUSTAINABLECOMPETITIVEADVANTAGEBARNE
8、Y,1986WITHREGARDTOKNOWLEDGE,THEISSUEOFTRANSFERABILITYISIMPORTANT,NOTONLYBETWEENFIRMS,BUTEVENMORECRITICALLY,WITHINTHEFIRMTHEMANAGEMENTLITERATUREHASCLEARLYRECOGNIZEDTHEEPISTEMOLOGICALDISTINCTIONBETWEENKNOWINGHOWANDKNOWINGABOUTWHICHISCAPTUREDBYDISTINCTIONSBETWEENSUBJECTIVEVSOBJECTIVEKNOWLEDGE,IMPLICITO
9、RTACITVSEXPLICITKNOWLEDGE,PERSONALVSPREPOSITIONALKNOWLEDGE,ANDPROCEDURALVSDECLARATIVEKNOWLEDGEMYPURPOSEHEREISNOTTOMAKEFINEDISTINCTIONSBETWEENDIFFERENTTYPESOFKNOWLEDGEIIDENTIFYKNOWINGHOWWITHTACITKNOWLEDGE,ANDKNOWLEDGEABOUTFACTSANDTHEORIESWITHEXPLICITKNOWLEDGETHECRITICALDISTINCTIONBETWEENTHETWOLIESINT
10、RANSFERABILITYANDTHEMECHANISMSFORTRANSFERACROSSINDIVIDUALS,ACROSSSPACE,ANDACROSSTIMEEXPLICITKNOWLEDGEISREVEALEDBYITSCOMMUNICANONTHISEASEOFCOMMUNICATIONISITSFUNDAMENTALPROPERTYINDEEDINFORMATIONHASTRADITIONALLYBEENVIEWEDBYECONOMISTSASBEINGAPUBLICGOODONCECREATEDITCANBECONSUMEDBYADDITIONALUSERSATCLOSETO
11、ZEROMARGINALCOSTTACITKNOWLEDGEISREVEALEDTHROUGHITSAPPLICATIONIFTACITKNOWLEDGECANNOTBECODIFIEDANDCANONLYBEOBSERVEDTHROUGHITSAPPLICATIONANDACQUIREDTHROUGHPRACTICE,ITSTRANSFERBETWEENPEOPLEISSLOW,COSTLY,ANDUNCERTAINKOGUTANDZANDER,1992CAPACITYFORAGGREGATIONTHEEFFICIENCYWITHWHICHKNOWLEDGECANBETRANSFERREDD
12、EPENDS,INPART,UPONKNOWLEDGESPOTENTIALFORAGGREGATIONKNOWLEDGETRANSFERINVOLVESBOTHTRANSMISSIONANDRECEIPTKNOWLEDGERECEIPTHASBEENANALYZEDINTERMSOFTHEABSORPTIVECAPACITYOFTHERECIPIENTCOHENANDLEVINTHAL,1990ATBOTHINDIVIDUALANDORGANIZATIONALLEVELS,KNOWLEDGEABSORPTIONDEPENDSUPONTHERECIPIENTSABILITYTOADDNEWKNO
13、WLEDGETOEXISTINGKNOWLEDGETHISREQUIRESADDITIVITYBETWEENDIFFERENTELEMENTSOFKNOWLEDGEEFFICIENCYOFKNOWLEDGEAGGREGATIONISGREATLYENHANCEDWHENKNOWLEDGECANBEEXPRESSEDINTERMSOFCOMMONLANGUAGESTATISTICSISAPARTICULARLYUSEFULLANGUAGEFORAGGREGATINGANDTRANSFERRINGCERTAINTYPESOFEXPLICITKNOWLEDGEITSEFFICIENCYINTHISR
14、OLEISGREATLYENHANCEDTHROUGHADVANCESININFORMATIONTECHNOLOGYTHUS,INFORMATIONONFORDMOTORCOMPANYSCASHBALANCES,ITSFOREIGNCURRENCYEXPOSURE,ITSINVENTORIESOFSPARKPLUGSANDCRANKSHAFTSISREADILYTRANSFERREDFROMMULTIPLELOCATIONSWITHINTHECOMPANYANDAGGREGATEDATASINGLELOCATIONCONVERSELYINFORMATIONABOUTTHECAPABILITIE
15、SOFFORDMANAGERS,ORTHEQUIRKSOFINDIVIDUALMACHINETOOLS,ISIDIOSYNCRATICKNOWLEDGECANNOTWHICHCANNOTBEAGGREGATEDATASINGLELOCATIONHAYEK1945521REFERSTOTHISASKNOWLEDGEOFTHEPARTICULARCIRCUMSTANCESOFTIMEANDPLACE,ANDJENSENANDMECKLING1992ASSPECIFICKNOWLEDGEASTHESEAUTHORSHAVESHOWN,ANDASWESHALLEXPLORELATERINTHEPAPE
16、R,THEABILITYTOTRANSFERANDAGGREGATEKNOWLEDGEISAKEYDETERMINANTOFTHEOPTIMALLOCATIONOFDECISIONMAKINGAUTHORITYWITHINTHEFIRMAPPROPRIABILITYAPPROPRIABILITYREFERSTOTHEABILITYOFTHEOWNEROFARESOURCETORECEIVEARETURNEQUALTOTHEVALUECREATEDBYTHATRESOURCETEECE,1987LEVINETN1,1987KNOWLEDGE,ISARESOURCEWHICHISSUBJECTTO
17、UNIQUELYCOMPLEXPROBLEMSOFAPPROPRIABILITYTACITKNOWLEDGEISNOTDIRECTLYAPPROPRIABLEBECAUSEITCANNOTBEDIRECTLYTRANSFERREDITCANBEAPPROPRIATEDONLYTHROUGHITSAPPLICATIONTOPRODUCTIVEACTIVITYEXPLICITKNOWLEDGESUFFERSFROMTWOKEYPROBLEMSOFAPPROPRIABILITYFIRST,ASAPUBLICORNONRIVALROOSGOOD,ANYONEWHOACQUIRESITCANRESELL
18、WITHOUTLOSINGITARCOW,1984SECOND,THEMEREACTOFMARKETINGKNOWLEDGEMAKESITAVAILABLETOPOTENTIALBUYERSARCOW,1971152THUS,EXCEPTFORPATENTSANDCOPYRIGHTSWHEREKNOWLEDGEOWNERSAREPROTECTEDBYLEGALLYESTABLISHEDPROPERTYRIGHTS,KNOWLEDGEISGENERALLYINAPPROPRIABLEBYMEANSOFMARKETTRANSACTIONSLACKOFCLEARPROPERTYRIGHTSRESUL
19、TSINAMBIGUITYOVERTHEOWNERSHIPOFKNOWLEDGEWHILEMOSTEXPLICITKNOWLEDGEANDALLTACITKNOWLEDGEISSTOREDWITHININDIVIDUALS,MUCHOFTHISKNOWLEDGEISCREATEDWITHINTHEFIRMANDISFIRMSPECIFICTHISCREATESDIFFICULTIESOVERTHEALLOCATIONOFTHERETURNSTOKNOWLEDGEANDACHIEVINGOPTIMALINVESTMENTINNEWKNOWLEDGEROSEN,1991SPECIALIZATION
20、INKNOWLEDGEACQUISITIONFUNDAMENTALTOSIMONSPRINCIPLEOFBOUNDEDRATIONALITYISRECOGNITIONTHATTHEHUMANBRAINHASLIMITEDCAPACITYTOACQUIRE,STOREANDPROCESSKNOWLEDGETHERESULTISTHATEFFICIENCYINKNOWLEDGEPRODUCTIONBYWHICHIMEANTHECREATIONOFNEWKNOWLEDGE,THEACQUISITIONOFEXISTINGKNOWLEDGE,ANDSTORAGEOFKNOWLEDGEREQUIREST
21、HATINDIVIDUALSSPECIALIZEINPARTICULARAREASOFKNOWLEDGETHISIMPLIESTHATEXPERTSAREALMOSTINVARIABLYSPECIALISTS,WHILEJACKSOFALLTRADESAREMASTERSOFNONETHEKNOWLEDGEREQUIREMENTSOFPRODUCTIONPRODUCTIONINVOLVESTHETRANSFORMATIONOFINPUTSINTOOUTPUTSFUNDAMENTALTOAKNOWLEDGEBASEDTHEORYOFTHEFINEISTHEASSUMPTIONTHATTHECRI
22、TICALINPUTINPRODUCTIONANDPRIMARYSOURCEOFVALUEISKNOWLEDGEINDEED,IFWEWERETORESURRECTASINGLEFACTORTHEORYOFVALUEINTHETRADITIONOFTHECLASSICALECONOMISTSLABORTHEORYOFVALUEORTHEFRENCHPHYSIOCRATSLANDBASEDTHEORYOFVALUE,THENTHEONLYDEFENSIBLEAPPROACHWOULDBEAKNOWLEDGEBASEDTHEORYOFVALUE,ONTHEGROUNDSTHATALLHUMANPR
23、ODUCTIVITYISKNOWLEDGEDEPENDENT,ANDMACHINESARESIMPLYEMBODIMENTSOFKNOWLEDGETHEEXITENCEOFTHEFIRMSTHEABOVEPRECEPTSESTABLISHARATIONALEFORTHEEXISTENCEOFFIRMSFOLLOWINGDEMSETZ1991171一175,THEEXISTENCEOFTHEFIRMREPRESENTSARESPONSETOAFUNDAMENTALASYMMETRYINTHEECONOMICSOFKNOWLEDGEKNOWLEDGEACQUISITIONREQUIRESGREAT
24、ERSPECIALIZATIONTHANISNEEDEDFORITSUTILIZATIONHENCE,PRODUCTIONREQUIRESTHECOORDINATEDEFFORTSOFINDIVIDUALSPECIALISTSWHOPOSSESSMANYDIFFERENTTYPESOFKNOWLEDGEYETMARKETSAREUNABLETOUNDERTAKETHISCOORDINATINGROLEBECAUSEOFTHEIRFAILUREINTHEFACEOFATHEIMMOBILITYOFTACITKNOWLEDGEANDBTHERISKOFEXPROPRIATIONOFEXPLICIT
25、KNOWLEDGEBYTHEPOTENTIALBUYERHENCE,FIRMSEXISTASINSTITUTIONSFORPRODUCINGGOODSANDSERVICESBECAUSETHEYCANCREATECONDITIONSUNDERWHICHMULTIPLEINDIVIDUALSCANINTEGRATETHEIRSPECIALISTKNOWLEDGETHESECONDITIONSINCLUDEPROPINQUITYANDLOWPOWEREDINCENTIVESDESIGNEDTOFOSTERCONDITIONBETWEENINDIVIDUALSPECIALISTSWHICHAVOID
26、THEPROBLEMSOFOPPORTUNISMASSOCIATEDWITHTHEHIGHPOWEREDINCENTIVESDIRECTLYRELATEDTOKNOWLEDGETRANSACTIONSAPOSSIBLESOLUTIONTOTHEINABILITYOFMARKETSTOCONTRACTOVERTRANSFERSOFTACITKNOWLEDGEISTOCONTRACTOVERUNITSOFWORKERSTIMEBUTEVERIFUNITSOFLABORTIMEARESUITABLEPROXIESFORTHESUPPLYOFTACITKNOWLEDGE,SOLONGASPRODUCT
27、IONREQUIRESTHECOMPLEXINTEGRATIONOFMULTIPLETYPESOFKNOWLEDGEWITHINASYSTEMOFTEAMPRODUCTIONTHENROSEN1991SHOWSTHATMARKETSMUSTESTABLISHANINCREDIBLYCOMPLEXWAGESTRUCTUREWHICHSETSASEPARATEWAGERATEFOREVERYWORKERSINTERACTIONWITHEVERYOTHERWORKERNOTETHATTHISVIEWOFTHEROLEOFTHEFIRMASAKNOWLEDGEINTEGRATINGINSTITUTIO
28、NISSOMEWHATDIFFERENTFROMTHATEMPHASIZEDINTHELITERATUREMOSTRESEARCHINTOORGANIZATIONALLEARNINGLEVITTANDMARCH,1988HUBER,1991ANDTHEKNOWLEDGEBASEDVIEWOFTHEFIRMSPENDER,1989NONAKA,1991,1994FOCUSESUPONTHEACQUISITIONANDCREATIONOFORGANIZIONALKNOWLEDGETHUS,SPENDER1989185DEFINESTHEORGANIZATIONAS,INESSENCE,ABODYO
29、FKNOWLEDGEABOUTTHEORGANIZATIONSCIRCUMSTANCES,RESOURCES,CAUSALMECHANISMS,OBJECTIVES,ATTITUDES,POLICIES,ANDSOFORTHMYAPPROACHISDISTINGUISHEDBYTWOASSUMPTIONSFIRST,THATKNOWLEDGECREATIONISANINDIVIDUALACTIVITYSECOND,THATTHEPRIMARYROLEOFFIRMSISINTHEAPPLICATIONOFEXISTINGKNOWLEDGETOTHEPRODUCTIONOFGOODSANDSERV
30、ICESTHISDISPENSINGWITHTHECONCEPTOFORGANIZATIONALKNOWLEDGEINFAVOROFEMPHASIZINGTHEROLEOFTHEINDIVIDUALINCREATINGANDSTORINGKNOWLEDGEISCONSISTENTWITHSIMONSOBSERVATIONTHATALLLEARNINGTAKESPLACEINSIDEINDIVIDUALHUMANHEADSANORGANIZATIONLEARNSINONLYTWOWAYSABYTHELEARNINGOFITSMEMBERS,ORBBYINGESTINGNEWMEMBERSWHOH
31、AVEKNOWLEDGETHEORGANIZATIONDIDNTPREVIOUSLYHAVESIMON,1991125MOREIMPORTANTLY,HOWEVER,ISTHEDESIRETOUNDERSTANDTHEORGANIZATIONALPROCESSESTHROUGHWHICHFIRMSACCESSANDUTILIZETHEKNOWLEDGEPOSSESSEDBYTHEIRMEMBERSTHEFLANGEINHERENTINTHECONCEPTOFORGANIZATIONALKNOWLEDGEISTHAT,BYVIEWINGTHEORGANIZATIONASTHENTITYWHICH
32、CREATES,STORESANDDEPLOYSKNOWLEDGE,THEORGANIZATIONALPROCESSESTHROUGHWHICLINDIVIDUALSENGAGEINTHESEACTIVITIESMAYBEOBSCUREDTHUS,MARCHVIEWSORGANIZATIONSASTORINGKNOWLEDGEINTHEIRPROCEDURES,NORMSRULES,ANDFORMSTHEYACCUMULATESUCHKNOWLEDGEOVERTIMELEARNINGFROMTHEIRMEMBERSMARCH,199173THISLEARNINGPROCESSINVOLVEEN
33、CODINGINFERENCESFROMHISTORYINTOROUTINETHATGUIDEBEHAVIORTHEGENERICTERMROUTINE,INCLUDESTHEFORMS,RULES,PROCEDURES,CONVENTIONSSTRATEGIES,ANDTECHNOLOGIESAROUNDWHICHORGANIZATIONSARECONSTRUCTEDANDTHROUGHWHICHTHEOPERATELEVITTANDMARCH,1988320TAKINLTHEORGANIZATIONASTHEUNITOFANALYSISNOTONLYRUNSTHERISKOFREIFICA
34、TION,BUT,BYDEFININGRULESPROCEDURES,CONVENTIONS,ANDNOUNSASKNOWLEDGEFAILSTODIRECTATTENTIONTOTHEMECHANISMSTHROUGHWHICHTHISORGANIZATIONALKNOWLEDGEISCREATECTHROUGHTHEINTERACTIONSOFINDIVIDUALS,ANDOFFERSLITTLEGUIDANCEASTOHOWMANAGERSCANINFLUENCETHESEPROCESSESMYEMPHASISISONTHEFIRMASANINSTITUTIONFORKNOWLEDGEA
35、PPLICATIONTHISISNOTTODENYTHEIMPORTANCEOFORGANIZATIONALCONSTEXTINKNOWLEDGECREATIONIFPRODUCTIONCREATIONREQUIRESTHEINTEGRATIONOFEACHPERSONSKNOWLEDGEWITHTHATOFOTHERS,EVENIFKNOWLEDGEACQUISITIONISINDIVIDUALISTIC,THEFIRMPROVIDESNECESSARYINCENTIVESANDDIRECTIONIFKNOWLEDGEISSPECIFICTOAPARTICULARTEAMPRODUCTION
36、PROCESS,THENKNOWLEDGECREATIONCANNOTBESEPARATEDFROMKNOWLEDGEAPPLICATIONBOTHOCCURWITHINACOMMENORGANIZATIONALCONTEXTTHUS,IFTHEMEMBERSOFMANCHESTERUNITEDSOCCERTEAMHAVECUMPLEMENTARYSKILLS,THENTHEYNEEDTOBETIEDTOGETHERBYLONGTERMRELATIONSHIPSINORDERTOACHIEVETHEINVESTMENTINTEAMBASEDSKILLSREQUIREDTOMAXIMIZETEA
37、MPERFORMANCEMARKETCONTRACTSAREUNLIKELYTOACHIEVETHESTABILITYOFLONGTERMRELATIONSHIPSANDARELIKELYTOGIVERISETOALLTHEPROBLEMSOFOPPORTUNISMTHATTRANSACTIONSCOSTECONOMICSPREDICTSAREACONSEQUENCEOFSMALLNUMBERSANDTRANSACTIONSPECIFICINVESTMENTSTHISRATIONALEFORTHEEXISTENCEOFTHEFIRMMAYBECRITICIZEDASBEINGASPECIALC
38、ASEOFTHECOASE/WILLIAMSONTRANSACTIONCOSTTHEORYOFTHEFIRMFIRMSEXISTBECAUSETHEYAREABLETOAVOIDTHECOSTSASSOCIATEDWITHMARKETTRANSACTIONSTHEKNOWLEDGEBASEDVIEWSIMPLYFOCUSESUPONTHECOSTSASSOCIATEDWITHASPECIFICTYPEOFTRANSACTIONTHOSEINVOLVINGKNOWLEDGECERTAINLY,THEABOVEANALYSISDRAWSUPONSOMEFAMILIARCONCEPTSOFMARKE
39、TFAILUREHOWEVER,THEKEYDISTINCTIONISEMPHASISUPONTHEFIRMASANORGANIZATIONFORMANAGINGTEAMPRODUCTIONRATHERTHANANINSTITUTIONFORMANAGINGTRANSACTIONSINCOMMONWITHTHEARGUMENTSOFGHOSHALANDMORAN1996,THECENTRALADVANTAGEOFFIRMSINTHEPRODUCTIONPROCESSISNOTSIMPLYANAVOIDANCEOFTHETRANSACTIONSCOSTSASSOCIATEDWITHMARKETE
40、XCHANGE,BUTTHEIRUNIQUEADVANTAGESFORGOVERNINGCERTAINTYPESOFECONOMICACTIVITIESFROMALOGICTHATISVERYDIFFERENTFROMTHATOFAMARKETGHOSHALANDMORAN,199613INTEGRATINGTHEKNOWLEDGEOFMANYDIFFERENTINDIVIDUALSINTHEPROCESSOFPRODUCINGGOODSANDSERVICESISSUCHALOGICTODEVELOPTHISARGUMENTFURTHER,THESEPROCESSESFORINTEGRATIN
41、GKNOWLEDGENEEDTOBESPECIFIEDMORECLEARLY译文对于一个企业的知识基础型理论ROBERTMGRANT美国华盛顿乔治镇大学根据知识的特点和产品生产的知识要求，企业被定义为一个整合知识的机构。本论文的主要贡献在于通过企业成员中专家的知识是来探究协调机制。和早期文献资料相反，现在人们认为知识存在于个人内部。而组织最主要的角色是知识的应用，不是知识的创造。随之产生的理论对组织能力基础、组织设计理论（尤其是对等级制度和决策等级分布的分析）以及企业横向、纵向边界的决定因素都有指示作用。总的来说，知识基础型理论为现今的组织创新和走向指明了道路，而且对管理实践有深远意义。基础任
42、何公司理论的基础都是由一套初始假设构成的。这些假设对公司的结构、行为、表现以及存在等论点的逻辑发展奠定了基础。若要阐述企业知识基础型理论，我们势必会碰到一个问题什么是知识这个问题激发了世界上最伟大的思想家（从柏拉图到波普尔）的兴趣，但始终没有统一的意见。我不想再这个领域竞争。说到知识的定义，除了“众所周知”的简单真理外，人们承认很多类型的知识都和企业有关。笔者也会在本论文中提及。为了企业理论的发展，笔者的主要任务是发现那些对管理有决定性作用的知识特征。许多对知识的分析和管理指出，以下特征非常恰当的证明在企业内部对知识的利用能够创造价值。可转移性持资源基础型观点的人认为，企业资源和能力的可转移性
43、就是企业实现可持续竞争优势的决定因素BARNEY,1986。关于知识，不仅仅在企业之间，更关键在于企业内部，可转移性这点是非常重要的。知道“怎样”和知道“关于”的区别在于“主观和客观的知识，含蓄和明了的知识，个人的和前置的知识，以及程序上和陈述上的知识”，管理学者已经清楚的认识到了以上几点在认识论中的差别。笔者在此的目的不是想完美地区分知识的各种形式。通过利用含蓄知识，笔者能够鉴别“怎样”，利用明了知识了解事实和理论。两者最关键的区别在于可转移性以及通过个人，空间，时间的转移机制。明了的知识是通过通信而显露的。这些交流的过程是最基础的属性。事实上经济学家一直都认为信息是一种公共利好的资源，更多
44、的使用者可以接近0边际成本的水平来消费信息。隐性知识是在应用中体现出来。如果人们不能把隐性知识精确归类，只能在应用中发现，在实践中获得，那么它在人们的转移中是缓慢的，高成本的，不确定的KOGUTANDZANDER,1992。集成能力知识转移的效率部分是靠知识集成的内在潜力。知识转移包括转送和接受。人们通过“接受者的吸收能力”来分析知识接受COHENANDLEVINTHAL,1990。从个人和组织的层面上来说，知识的吸收能力取决于接受者在有知识基础上增加新知识的能力。这要求不同知识之间元素的可叠加性。当知识能以普通语言表达出来后，知识扩张的效率就会大大提高。对于扩张（和传播）特定类型的明了知识时
45、，数据就成了一门特别有用的语言。随着信息技术的进步，其角色的有效性大大提高。因此，福特汽车公司的员工已随时准备将公司的现金平衡信息，外币曝露信息以及火花塞和曲轴的存货从公司的多个位置转移并集聚到一个地方。但是，福特管理者的能力或单个机器部件的高效率是一种特殊的知识，无法集中到一个位置。HAYEK1945521认为这是“特定时间和地点的下知识”，JENSEN和MECKLING1992认为其是“特殊知识”。正如以上学者所述，转移和集成知识的能力对形成企业内部最佳决策制度来说至关重要。适应性适应性是指资源所有者接受与资源价值同等水平知识的能力TEECE,1987LEVINETN1,1987。知识是一
46、种资源，其取决于各种独特、复杂问题的适应性。因为人们不能直接转移隐性知识，所以它并不是放之四海而皆准的。只有当人们把它应用到生产活动中，它才能实现其合理性。清晰知识面临两大关于适用性的问题第一，作为一种公共或者说不排他的资源，任何一个人得到它的人都可以重复出售它，但是不会失去它的使用权ARCOW,1984。第二，仅靠市场营销知识便可将它传播给潜在的顾客ARCOW,1971152。一些专利和版权的所有者受产权的合法保护。这种情况下知识不适合用市场手段来传播。若缺乏清晰的产权知识，则会对知识所有权模凌两可。而大部分清晰知识和所有隐性知识都是储存于个体内部，大部分的知识是在企业内创造的，是企业特有的
47、。这给回馈知识带来了困难，也对新知识取得最佳投资带来了不便ROSEN,1991。知识获得的专业化有人认为人类大脑对获取、储存、加工知识的能力是有限的。这个观点对西蒙的有限理论性至关重要。结果是知识生产的效率（笔者指新知识的创造，已有知识的获得和知识的储备）要求个体专注于某个领域的知识。这也暗示专家（几乎）永远是专家，而洋洋精通的人，往往样样稀松。知识生产涉及到将输入的知识输出。知识是输入生产的重要一关，也是价值的主要来源。这一假设对知识基础性理论来说是十分重要的。从传统意义上来说，经典的经济学理论有两个，即劳动价值论或者法国重农主义土地价值论。若我们要重提单一因素价值论，那么知识基础型理论是唯
48、一可行的方法。该理论认为，一切人类生产都是依靠知识进行的，机器仅仅是知识的具体化。企业的存在以上规律为公司的存在提供了合理的解释。根据DEMSETZ1991171一175，企业的存在代表了经济学中一种极不平衡的现象知识获得比知识利用更需专业化。因此，生产要求众多博才多学的专家齐心协力。然而市场不能担任协调的角色，因为它无法做到一下两点（A）保持隐性知识的固定性（B）潜在客户在运用清晰知识时会遇到风险。企业作为生产商品和提供服务的机构而存在，因为它们能为多人集成知识创造条件。这些条件包括在专家之间创造邻近性和低功率动机以便达到目的。高功率动机直接和知识转移有关，专家们会避免这种机会主义问题。一个
49、有效的解决市场无能的政策是隐性知识转让和单个工人时间的合同化。但是即使单个劳动时间是隐性知识供给的适当授权，只要在一个生产团队系统里产品要求多种形式知识的复杂整合，市场必须建立一个可信的复杂的工资结构即一套分离的工资水平线。企业作为一个知识整合的机构强调的是不同与大部分组织研究，而且企业关注的是知识型观点与组织知识的获得和创造。因此，SPENDER1989185定义组织，从本质上说，是关于组织环境，资源，因果机制，客观，态度，政策的个体。我的目的是区分两个假设一、知识创造是一个独立的行为；二、企业的主要角色是对生产服务过程中现存知识的应用。这个组织理论有利于强调独立创造和储存的知识是和西蒙的发现是一致的。西蒙曾说所有学习是发生在独立的人类大脑中；一个组织的学习只有两个方式通过组织成员的学习，或者吸收拥有组织不曾拥有知识的新成员。更重要的是，通过企业成员的存取和利用知识，渴望了解组织进程。固有的边缘知识理论是把组织看作是统筹创造，储存和配置知识的机构。因此，MARCH认为组织是把知识存于产品，日常规章，和形式。知识积累是通过不断的从他们的成员中学习。我强调的是在企业是一个知识应用的机构。这不是否定组织知识创造理论的重要性。如果产品创造要求整合每个人的知识和另外的人，甚至知识获得是独立的，企业提供必要激励和方向。如果知识对于一个生产团队
