1、毕业论文外文原文外文题目POTENTIALS,PROBLEMSANDPOLICYIMPLICATIONSFORURBANAGRICULTUREINDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES出处AGRICULTURALSCIENCES,IMPERICALCOLLEGEATWYE,KENT,UK作者ERIKBRYLDUNITEDNATIONSDEVELOPMENTPROGRAMMEKATHMANDU,NEPALABSTRACTURBANAGRICULTUREHAS,FORCENTURIES,SERVEDASAVITALINPUTINTHELIVELIHOODSTRATEGIESOFURBANHOUSE
2、HOLDSINTHEDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESASARESPONSETOTHEECONOMICCRISESEXACERBATEDBYTHESTRUCTURALADJUSTMENTPROGRAMSANDINCREASINGMIGRATION,URBANAGRICULTUREHASEXPANDEDRAPIDLYWITHINTHELAST20YEARSANEXAMINATIONOFTHEGENERALTRENDSINURBANAGRICULTUREREVEALSANUMBEROFISSUESPOLICYMAKERSINDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESSHOULDADDRESSTOP
3、ROVIDESERVICESTOENSUREASUSTAINABLEBEHAVIORTOWARDSURBANCULTIVATIONMOSTIMPORTANTISTHELEGALIZATIONOFURBANAGRICULTUREASASTEPTOWARDSSECURINGLANDSFORTHEURBANPOORTHEILLEGALSTATUSHASLEFTAGOVERNANCEVACUUM,WHICHSHOULDBEFILLEDTHROUGHPOLICYFORMULATIONANDREGULARINSTITUTIONALIZEDMANAGEMENTINAPARTICIPATORYMANNERIN
4、CLUDINGALLRELEVANTSTAKEHOLDERSIFFOODSECURITYHASTOBEINCREASEDANDENVIRONMENTIMPROVEDINANURBANDEVELOPMENTCONTEXTKEYWORDSENVIRONMENT,FOODSECURITY,GENDER,GOVERNANCE,LIVELIHOODSTRATEGIES,POLICY,STRUCTURALADJUSTMENT,URBANAGRICULTURE,URBANPLANNINGAGRICULTURALPRODUCTIONINURBANAREASISNOTANEWPHENOMENONINDEVELO
5、PINGCOUNTRIESTHEUNITEDNATIONSDEVELOPMENTPROGRAMMEUNDPESTIMATESTHATAPPROXIMATELY800MILLIONURBANRESIDENTSWEREENGAGEDINAGRICULTURALPRODUCTIONINTHEMID1990S,COMMERCIALORSUBSISTENCEUNDP,1996BORGUE,2000URBANAGRICULTUREHASUNDERGONEARADICALTRANSFORMATIONSINCETHELATE1970SANDEARLY1980SINAFRICA,URBANCULTIVATION
6、HASBECOMEAPERMANENTPARTOFTHELANDSCAPEINTHEBEGINNINGOFTHE1980S,AMERE1025OFTHEURBANPOPULATIONINAFRICAWASENGAGEDINURBANAGRICULTUREWHILEUPTO70OFTHEURBANPOPULATIONINAFRICA,ANDUPTO60INASIA,HAVEBECOMEURBANCULTIVATORSINTHE1990SROGERSON,1997TODAY,70OFTHEPOULTRYFOODCONSUMEDINKAMPALAISPRODUCEDWITHINTHECITYBOUN
7、DARIESINKATHMANDUANDZAMBIA,MORETHANATHIRDOFTHESUBSISTENCEFOODPRODUCTIONISPRODUCEDWITHINTHECITYALLTHREECITIESHAVEWITNESSEDAMASSIVESHIFTINUSEOFTHEURBANLANDSCAPEFROMOPENSPACESTOAGRICULTURALPRODUCTIONINDARESSALAAM,THENUMBEROFFAMILIESENGAGEDINAGRICULTURALPRODUCTIONHASINCREASEDFROM18TO67FROM1967TO1991,MAK
8、INGURBANAGRICULTURETHESECONDLARGESTEMPLOYERAFTERPETTYTRADEUNDP,1996RATTAANDNASR,1996THEPRIMARYDRIVINGFORCEBEHINDTHISCONTINUOUSINCREASEINURBANAGRICULTUREISANINCREASEINMIGRATIONFROMRURALTOURBANAREASASWELLASTHEWORSENINGECONOMICSITUATIONOFTHEURBANPOPULATIONASACONSEQUENCEOFTHEBRETTONWOODSINSTITUTIONSSTRU
9、CTURALADJUSTMENTPROGRAMSTHESTRUCTURALADJUSTMENTPROGRAMSFOCUSONGROWTHAIMINGATINCREASINGTHEINCOMELEVELTHROUGHMANAGEMENTOFRESOURCESMOREPROPERLYTHROUGHMARKETLIBERALIZATIONSCOTT,1993THESTRUCTURALADJUSTMENTPROGRAMSHAVE,HOWEVER,OFTENRESULTEDINANOTEWORTHYECONOMICSETBACKOFTHEPOORESTPARTOFTHEPOPULATIONWHOCANN
10、OTAFFORDTHEFREEMARKETPRICESOFBASICFOODTHESEPROGRAMSRESULTEDINAREMOVALOFSUBSIDIESTOFOODPRODUCTIONINTHEDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESSEEKINGLOANSFROMTHEWORLDBANKANDINTERNATIONALMONETARYFUND,WHICHCONSEQUENTLYLEDTOALIBERALIZATIONOFTHE80ERIKBRYLDFOODTRADE,WHICHAGAINRESULTEDINSIGNIFICANTPRICERISEFIVEFOLDRATTAANDNASR
11、,1996PARALLELWITHTHERISEINPRICES,SALARIESANDREALWAGESWEREDEVALUATEDUPTO10TIMES,LEAVINGTHECITIZENSWITHLIMITEDRESOURCESFORFOODPROVISIONTHISDOUBLEBURDENHASINCREASEDTHEINTRAURBANPOVERTYANDPUSHEDURBANCITIZENSTOBECOMEENGAGEDINURBANAGRICULTUREINORDERTOFEEDHOUSEHOLDPOTTS,1997SCOTT,1993MBIBA,1995ARATTAANDNAS
12、R,1996MAXWELL,1999TERMINOLOGYMWALUKASA2000150DEFINESURBANAGRICULTUREAS“CARRYINGOUTFARMINGACTIVITIESINBUILTUPAREASWHEREOPENSPACEISAVAILABLE,ASWELLASKEEPINGLIVESTOCKDAIRY,CATTLE,GOATS,SHEEP,PIGSANDFOWLINBUILTUPANDINPERIURBANAREAS”THISDEFINITIONCAPTURESTHEESSENCEOFURBANAGRICULTURE,WHILEATTHESAMETIMEITI
13、LLUSTRATESONEOFTHEMAINPROBLEMSWITHITSCONCEPTUALIZATION,THATOFDEFININGTHEKEYAREAURBAN,INADEVELOPMENTCONTEXTUNDP19969DEFINESURBAN“INABROADSENSE,TOENCOMPASSTHEENTIREAREAINWHICHACITYSSPHEREOFINFLUENCESOCIAL,ECOLOGICAL,ORECONOMICCOMESTOBEARDAILYORDIRECTLYONITSPOPULATION”BUTWHEREDOESTHECITYSSOCIAL,ECOLOGI
14、CAL,ORECONOMICSPHEREENDCITIESARENOTISOLATEDAREASANDTHEIRSPHEREIS,THEREFORE,NOTAPRESETBOUNDARYASTACOLI19983PUTSIT,THEREISALACKOFRECOGNITIONOFTHECOMPLEXITYOFRURALURBANINTERACTIONSWHICHINVOLVESPATIALASWELLASSECTORALDIMENSIONSTHEGROWINGEVIDENCEOFTHESCALEANDNATUREOFURBANAGRICULTUREANDOFRURALNONAGRICULTUR
15、ALENTERPRISESANDEMPLOYMENTSUGGESTSTHATTHESEDISTINCTIONSAREOVERSIMPLIFIEDDESCRIPTIONSOFBOTHRURALANDURBANLIVELIHOODSACTIVITIESRELATEDTOURBANAGRICULTUREARERARELYISOLATEDFROMRURALAREASACTIVITIESINRURALANDURBANAREASAREOFTENINTERLINKEDACROSSSPACEANDSECTORSTHEPROBLEMWITHTHEDEFINITIONVERYCLEARLYREVEALSTHATC
16、ITYBORDERSAREFLUENT,WHICHISFURTHEREMPHASIZEDBYTHEACTIVERURALURBANINTERACTIONSTAKINGPLACEINTHEPERIURBANAREAS1ITIS,THEREFORE,IMPORTANTTHATURBANAGRICULTUREISSEENASADYNAMICCONCEPTTHEREISTHUSANEEDFORRECOGNITIONOFTHEDIVERSITYOFURBANAGRICULTUREWHENDEALINGWITHISSUESOFURBANAGRICULTUREANDMAKINGPOLICIESWITHINT
17、HISFIELD,ITISVITALTHATTHEPARTICULARITIESOFTHESETTINGSARETAKENINTOCONSIDERATIONWHILEATTHESAMETIMEITISIMPORTANTTOUNDERSTANDTHATURBANAGRICULTUREISNOTANISOLATEDPHENOMENON,BUTANACTIVITYINTERLINKEDWITHACTIVITIESINBOTHPERIURBANANDRURALAREASWHEREISURBANAGRICULTUREPRACTICEDANDBYWHOMTHEINCREASEINURBANAGRICULT
18、UREHASBROUGHTWITHITNEWSPACESWHERECULTIVATIONISEXERCISEDMOSTCOMMONISCULTIVATIONINTHEBACKYARDANDAROUNDBUILDINGSHOWEVER,COMMUNITY,ANDPUBLICLANDS,ANDPARKS,HAVEALSOBEENINVADEDBYURBANAGRICULTURISTSWITHINTHELASTDECADESAMONGTHESEAREAREASALLOCATEDTOOTHERUSES,SUCHASROADSIDESANDAIRPORTBUFFERSASWELLASAREASNOTSU
19、ITABLEFORBUILDINGSUCHASSTREAMSIDES,FLOODPLAINS,DRAINAGEWAYLEAVES,WETLANDS,ANDSTEEPSLOPESFREEMAN,1993UNDP,1996EVENTHOUGHTHEMAJORITYOFTHEPRODUCEGROWNINURBANAREASINTHEDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESGOESTOSUBSISTENCE,THEREAREALSOOTHERINCENTIVESFORGOINGINTOURBANAGRICULTURESOMEURBANHIGHINCOMEINHABITANTSUSEAGRICULTURE
20、ASASTRATEGYOFFURTHERACCUMULATIONTHROUGHTHEPRODUCTIONOFHIGHYIELDCROPSCLOSETOTHEMARKET,WHILESOMEMIDDLEINCOMEHOUSEHOLDSUSEURBANCULTIVATIONASMEANSOFCONSOLIDATION,SECURINGTHEFAMILYWELLBEINGTHEMAJORITYOFURBANAGRICULTURISTSARE,HOWEVER,ENGAGEDINCULTIVATIONASAMEANSOFSURVIVALFREEMAN,1993ATUKUNDAANDMAXWELL,199
21、6RIGG,1998URBANAGRICULTUREHASBECOMEASURVIVALSTRATEGYFORURBANHOUSEHOLDSASMAXWELL19991950PUTSITUNDERCIRCUMSTANCESWHERELOWINCOMEURBANPOPULATIONSARESPENDINGUPTOTHREEQUARTERSOFTHEIRTOTALINCOMEONFOOD,THEISSUESOFINCOMEANDLIVELIHOODAREDIRECTLYLINKEDTOFOODSECURITYPEOPLEARENOTPASSIVEVICTIMSWITHINTHECONSTRAINT
22、STHEYFACE,PEOPLEDOTHEIRBESTTOCOPE,TOMAKEENDSMEET,TOPROTECTTHEIRLIVELIHOODS,ANDMEETTHEIRBASICREQUIREMENTSHAVINGTHEOPPORTUNITYOFGROWINGFOODORKEEPINGPOULTRY,THEREFORE,BECOMESACRITICALCOMPONENTINTHEABILITYOFSTAYINGALIVEINTHEURBANENVIRONMENT,DESPITETHEFACTTHATITISILLEGALINMOSTDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESMAXWELL,1
23、999NUGENT,2000THEURBANPOOR2RARELYHAVEACCESSTOFARMINGPLOTSOFSUCHAMAGNITUDETHATTHEYCANSUPPORTTHEWHOLEFAMILYWITHFOODCONSEQUENTLY,URBANAGRICULTUREGENERALLYSERVESASAVITALSIDEEARNINGFORMOSTHOUSEHOLDSTHEPOORESTFAMILIESOFTENHAVETOSELLSOMEOFTHEIRPRODUCETOSURVIVEINORDERTOPAYRENT,SCHOOL,ORMEDICALEXPENSES,EVENI
24、FTHISMEANSTHATTHEFAMILYWILLNOTRECEIVESUFFICIENTFOODINASTUDYBYPOLICYANDURBANAGRICULTURE81FREEMAN199312INNAIROBI,THEMOSTCOMMONLYEXPRESSEDPRIMEMOTIVATIONFORURBANCULTIVATIONISTHENEEDTOAVERTHUNGERFORTHECULTIVATORSANDTHEIRFAMILIESBYPRODUCINGSTAPLECROPSURBANAGRICULTURETHENBECOMESAFORMOFSEMIPROLETARISMWHERE
25、THEPRODUCERSRELYONBOTHSUBSISTENCEANDCASHINCOMEFREEMAN,1993MAXWELL,1995RIGG,1998INTHEDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES,ESPECIALLYINSUBSAHARANAFRICAANDSOUTHASIA,THISPRODUCTIONPATTERNGENERALLYMEANSTHATITISTHEWOMENWHOAREINCHARGEOFCULTIVATIONMBIBA,1995BMAXWELL,1995THERESEEMSTOBETWOMAINREASONSFORTHISFIRST,URBANCULTIVAT
26、IONISRELATIVELYEASILYFITTEDINTOWOMENSDAILYWORKPATTERNWITHTHEPLOTSSITUATEDRELATIVELYCLOSETOTHERESIDENCE,THEFEMALEHOUSEHOLDMEMBERSAREEASILYATTENDINGTOTHEPRODUCEIFANDWHENTHEYHAVEABREAKFROMOTHERDUTIES3SECOND,DIFFERENTRESEARCHFROMDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESSHOWTHATMENGENERALLYDONOTREGARDURBANAGRICULTUREASABUSINE
27、SS,BUTONLYASAMARGINALACTIVITYMAXWELL,1995DENNERY,1996THISRELATIVELYSTRONGDIVIDEINGENDERROLESHASREVEALEDTWOSIGNIFICANTCONSEQUENCESFIRST,THEINCREASEINDEVELOPINGHOUSEHOLDSENGAGEMENTINURBANAGRICULTUREHASBURDENEDWOMENEVENMOREIFNOTENGAGEDINOTHERINCOMEGENERATINGACTIVITIES,WOMENUSUALLYWORKFULLTIMEONDOMESTIC
28、DUTIES,ASTHEYAREGENERALLYRESPONSIBLEFORTHEHOUSEHOLDREPRODUCTION,WHICHUSUALLYINCLUDESOBTAININGFOODANDWATER,COOKING,CLEANING,WASHINGCLOTHES,ANDLOOKINGAFTERCHILDREN,ELDERS,ANDTHESICK,BESIDESBEINGENGAGEDINPETTYTRADEFURTHERMORE,ITISUSUALLYWOMENRATHERTHANMENWHOFORGOFOODINORDERTOFEEDTHEIRCHILDRENBESIDESADD
29、INGTOTHEDAILYBURDENOFWORK,THESECUTSINSPARETIMEKEEPWOMENFROMACQUIRINGHIGHERPAYINGINFORMALORFORMALSECTOROCCUPATIONINTHISSENSE,URBANAGRICULTURECANBECOMEALOWINCOMETRAPTHATIMPRISONSUNSKILLEDWOMENPOTTS,1997FREEMAN,1993UNDP,1996ONTHEOTHERHAND,DIFFERENTRESEARCHSHOWSTHATWOMENAREGENERALLYVERYPLEASEDWITHBEINGE
30、NGAGEDINURBANAGRICULTUREFREEMAN,1993DENNERY,1996MAXWELL,1999URBANAGRICULTUREIS,THUS,ANIMPORTANTLIVELIHOODSTRATEGYFORTHEHOUSEHOLDANDESPECIALLYTHEFEMALEMEMBERSTHEABOVEILLUSTRATESTHEPROBLEMOFWORKINGWITHTHEHOUSEHOLDASANENTITYWHENRESEARCHINGLIVELIHOODSTRATEGIESOFTENITBECOMESVERYUNCLEARWHERETHEHOUSEHOLDBE
31、GINSANDENDSHOUSEHOLDSMAYBEMULTISPATIALTHEDIFFERENTMEMBERSOFTHEHOUSEHOLDMAYWORKINBOTHRURALANDURBANAREASSOMEHOUSEHOLDMEMBERSMAYEVENRESIDEINURBANAREASFORPERIODSOFTIMEFORGENERATINGCASHWHILETHERESTLIVEANDWORKINRURALAREASANDEVENSO,THEYWILLOFTENALLBEPARTOFTHEHOUSEHOLDLIVELIHOODSTRATEGYHOWEVER,THISDISTINCTI
32、ONISNOTMADEEASIERBYTHEFACTTHATHOUSEHOLDMEMBERSDONOTALWAYSPOOLTHEIRINCOMES,RESULTINGINDIFFERENTANDOFTENINDIVIDUALLIVELIHOODSTRATEGIESEVENSO,URBANAGRICULTUREISAVITALELEMENTINTHESURVIVALSTRATEGYOFTHEHOUSEHOLDMEMBERSWHOCANGENERATEEXTRAINCOMETHROUGHTHEUTILIZATIONOFTHEPOTENTIALSOFURBANCULTIVATIONSMITH,199
33、6TACOLI,1998RIGG,1998ZEEUWETAL,2000POTENTIALSURBANAGRICULTUREBRINGSWITHITGREATPOTENTIALSFORENHANCINGTHESITUATIONOFTHEURBANCITIZENS,ESPECIALLYTHOSEWITHTHELOWESTINCOMESWHOAREDEPENDENTONTHEACCESSTOLOCALLYGROWNFOODFOODSECURITYASURBANIZATIONINCREASES,SODOESTHENEEDFORSUFFICIENTFOODTHEOPPORTUNITYTOGROWAND/
34、ORACQUIREFOODPRODUCEDLOCALLY,THEREFORE,BECOMESACRITICALCOMPONENTINSURVIVINGINTHECITYTHUS,URBANAGRICULTUREPLAYSASIGNIFICANTROLEINCONTRIBUTINGTOTHEWELFAREOFESPECIALLYPOORURBANRESIDENTSMAXWELL,1995LOURENCOLINDELL,1996MWALUKASA,2000NUGENT,2000ZEEUWETAL,2000RESEARCHCONDUCTEDBYTHEWORLDBANKUNDP,1996160HASS
35、HOWNTHATAMAJORITYOFADULTSANDCHILDRENLIVINGINLOWINCOMEURBANAREASHAVEDISEASESTHATLIMITTHEIRCAPACITYTOLEARNANDWORKTHISSITUATIONCANBEIMPROVEDIFTHECITIZENSAREENGAGEDINURBANFARMING,WHICHWILLDECREASEMALNUTRITIONANDINCREASETHEQUANTITYOFFOODINTAKERESOURCESFREEDBYTHEPRODUCTIONOFURBANCULTIVATIONCAN,FORINSTANCE
36、,BEUSEDTOBALANCETHEFAMILYDIETBYPURCHASINGOTHERKINDSOFFOOD,EG,FISH,FRUIT,ANDVEGETABLESURBANPOORAREGENERALLYMOREDEPENDENTONCASHINCOMETOPURCHASEFOODDAILYDIETARYINTAKES,THEREFORE,VARYACCORDINGTOTHEDAYSINCOMEANDMARKETPRICECONSEQUENTLY,ASTABLEINTAKEOFSELFGROWNPRODUCEWILLREDUCETHECITIZENSDEPENDENCEONTHEIRF
37、LUCTUATINGSALARIESANDIMPROVETHEIRNUTRITIONSMITH,1996UNDP,1996ECONOMICADVANTAGESSINCEMOSTOFTHEPRODUCEOFURBANAGRICULTUREISUSEDFORSUBSISTENCECONSUMPTION,ITCANBEDIFFICULTTOASSESSTHEIMPACTOFURBANAGRICULTUREONTHEECONOMYTHEREISLITTLEDOUBT,THOUGH,THATURBANAGRICULTURECREATESCONSIDERABLEECONOMICACTIVITYINTHEC
38、ITIESTHISIS,AMONGOTHERFACTORS,CAUSEDBYTHEINCREASINGECONOMICUSEOFLAND,SINCEINCOMEISGENERATEDFROMTEMPORARILYAVAILABLELANDANDLANDSNOTSUITABLEFORBUILDINGMBIBA,1995ARATTAANDNASR,1996SMITH,1996UNDP,1996ITISDIFFICULT82ERIKBRYLDTOASSESSWHETHERURBANAGRICULTUREINTHEDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESHASASIGNIFICANTIMPACTONTH
39、EMACROECONOMICSHOWEVER,ASHAVEBEENDESCRIBEDBEFORE,BEINGRELIEVEDFROMUTILIZINGAVASTAMOUNTOFTHEHOUSEHOLDEARNINGSONFOODDUETOSELFPRODUCTIONMEANSTHATRESOURCESFORMERLYBOUNDTOPURCHASINGFOODCANNOWBEUSEDONOTHERPRESSINGNEEDS,SUCHASSCHOOLFEES,MEDICALTREATMENT,ORRENTTHISINEVITABLYINCREASESTHEROOMFORMANEUVERFORTHE
40、HOUSEHOLD,ESPECIALLYFORTHEWOMENWHOARETHEMOSTFREQUENTURBANCULTIVATORSINTHISWAY,URBANAGRICULTURECANSERVEASANEMPOWERMENTOFWOMENANDATTHESAMETIMEPROMOTEINCREASEDWELFAREFOROTHERHOUSEHOLDMEMBERSENVIRONMENTALADVANTAGESBESIDESTHEDIRECTNUTRITIONALBENEFITSOFURBANAGRICULTUREFORTHECULTIVATORS,THEREARESEVERALOTHE
41、RENVIRONMENTALADVANTAGESWORTHNOTICINGMOSTDEVELOPINGCOUNTRYCITIESDONOTHAVEENVIRONMENTALLYSUSTAINABLEPOLICIESWHENITCOMESTONUTRIENTRECYCLINGINMOSTCITIES,THEREISAGENERALTHROUGHPUTOFRESOURCES,INCREASINGTHEAMOUNTOFGARBAGEWASTEDTHEREAREDIFFERENTWAYSOFIMPROVINGTHECITIESENVIRONMENTS,AMONGTHESEPLANTINGOFTREES
42、,REDUCINGCONSUMPTION,ANDIMPROVINGTHEEFFICIENCYOFTHEINFRASTRUCTURETHECULTIVATIONOFPLANTSANDTREESHELPSREDUCEDUSTANDABSORBSPOLLUTANTSTHROUGHITSFOLIAGETREESANDPLANTSCANALSOINCREASETHEHUMIDITYINARIDCLIMATESANDREDUCERADIATIONALHEATINGTHROUGHCONVERSIONOFGROUNDWATERINTOATMOSPHERICHUMIDITYCULTIVATIONCANALSOT
43、URNUNSIGHTLYLOTSINTOGREENAREAS,PRESERVINGTHEMUCHNEEDEDGREENBELTSINTHECITIESFURTHERMORE,THEREISACONSTANTDEMANDFORFUELWOODINTHEDEVELOPINGCITIES,ADEMAND,THATCANBESUPPLIEDPARTLYBYFORESTRYINURBANANDPERIURBANAREASUNDP,1996URBANAGRICULTUREALSOCONTRIBUTESTOANIMPROVEDURBANENVIRONMENTINOTHERWAYSONEOFTHEMOSTEF
44、FICIENTWAYSOFIMPROVINGTHEENVIRONMENTISTHROUGHRECYCLINGOFORGANICWASTECOMPOSTFROMURBANORGANICSCANEASILYBEAPPLIEDINURBANANDPERIURBANPLOTSANDSERVEASFERTILIZERFURTHERMORE,HUMANEXCRETACANBEUSEDINFISHFARMINGSMITH,1996UNDP,1996FUREDYETAL,1999ALSO,RESEARCHINBANGKOKBYFRGEETAL2001DOCUMENTSHOWHUGEQUANTITIESOFPL
45、ANTNUTRIENTSTHATCOULDBERECOVEREDANDREUSEDAREDISCHARGEDINTOTHERIVERANDWASTEDANUTRIENTRECYCLINGPROGRAMTHATTRANSFERREDTHESEWASTESTOTHEURBANCULTIVATEDPLOTSCOULDIMPROVETHEENVIRONMENTANDINCREASETHEOUTPUTOFURBANAGRICULTUREPROBLEMSASHAVEBEENSHOWN,THEREARESEVERALADVANTAGESOFPROMOTINGURBANAGRICULTURE,BUTASTHI
46、SSECTIONWILLREVEAL,LIVINGWITHANDMANAGINGURBANAGRICULTUREISNOTUNPROBLEMATICINALMOSTALLDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES,URBANAGRICULTUREISDEJUREAND/ORDEFACTOILLEGALITISGENERALLYVIEWEDASANARTIFACTOFRURALLIFEANDTHEREFORENOTBELONGINGINTHECITYFURTHERMORE,ITISPERCEIVEDASHAVINGONLYMARGINALIMPORTANCETOTHEURBANECONOMYANDT
47、HEPEOPLEENGAGEDINTHISSECTORARESELDOMPEOPLEWITHINFLUENCEONTHECITYMANAGEMENTPUBLICHEALTHNUISANCESCOTT,1993MAXWELL,1995ATUKUNDAANDMAXWELL,1996POTENTIALHEALTHHAZARDURBANAGRICULTURECANBEAHEALTHHAZARDMULTIPLEPROBLEMSCANOCCURWHENSOLIDWASTEISPROCESSEDORWASTEWATERISUSEDFORIRRIGATIONANDFISHFARMINGPOORMANAGEME
48、NTOFCOMPOSTPILESINCREASESDISEASES,AMONGTHESEBRONCHITIS,TUBERCULOSIS,DYSENTERY,ANDCANCERCAUSEDBYWASTEGASESFURTHERMORE,LEADINSOILANDAIRISAMAJORCONTAMINANTTHATGREENLEAFYVEGETABLESCANCONCENTRATEINTHEIRLEAVESTHEREHAVEALSOBEENCASESOFUNTREATEDWASTEWATERBEINGUSEDFORFARMINGRESULTINGINCASESWITHCHOLERAUNDP,199
49、6FUREDYETAL,1999BORQUE,2000INSOMEREGIONS,CHEMICALFERTILIZERISUSEDTOENHANCETHEOUTPUT,APRACTICETHATCANPOSEPOTENTIALENVIRONMENTALPROBLEMSTHISPRACTICEISCATALYZEDBYTHEFACTTHATURBANCULTIVATIONISSTILLILLEGALINMANYDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES,FORCINGTHEFARMERSTOGETASMUCHOUTOFTHEPRODUCTIONINTHESHORTESTPERIODOFTIMESMITH,1996TAKINGUPSPACEFORHOUSESBESIDESFEEDINGTHEPOORINTHECITIES,THEREISANURGENTNEEDFORPROVIDINGSHELTERFORTHEHOMELESSTHEVASTAMOUNTOFLANDUSEDONURBANAGRICULTUREISANOBSTACLETOURBANHOUSINGPROVISIONINTHECITYOFHARARE,MORETHAN400,000PEOPLELACKHOUSING,FORCINGPEOPLETOLIVEINSHANTIESWITHINCREASEDHEALT
