1、本科毕业论文外文翻译外文题目INTERNATIONALTRADEANDINDUSTRIALUPGRADINGINTHEAPPARELCOMMODITYCHAIN出处JOURNALOFINTERNATIONALECONOMICS作者GARYGEREFFIABSTRACTTHISARTICLEUSESAGLOBALCOMMODITYCHAINSPERSPECTIVETOANALYZETHESOCIALANDORGANIZATIONALDIMENSIONSOFINTERNATIONALTRADENETWORKSINLINKINGINTERNATIONALTRADEANDINDUSTRIALUPGRA
2、DING,THISARTICLESPECIFIESTHEMECHANISMSBYWHICHORGANIZATIONALLEARNINGOCCURSINTRADENETWORKSTYPICALTRAJECTORIESFROMASSEMBLYTOOEMANDOBMEXPORTROLESANDTHEORGANIZATIONALCONDITIONSTHATFACILITATEINDUSTRIALUPGRADINGMOVESSUCHASTHESHIFTFROMASSEMBLYTOFULLPACKAGENETWORKSTHEEMPIRICALFOCUSISTHEAPPARELINDUSTRY,WITHAN
3、EMPHASISONASIAGLOBALIZATIONHASALTEREDTHECOMPETITIVEDYNAMICSOFNATIONS,FIRMS,ANDINDUSTRIESTHISISMOSTCLEARLYSEENINCHANGINGPATTERNSOFINTERNATIONALTRADE,WHERETHEEXPLOSIVEGROWTHOFIMPORTSINDEVELOPEDCOUNTRIESINDICATESTHATTHECENTEROFGRAVITYFORTHEPRODUCTIONANDEXPORTOFMANYMANUFACTURESHASMOVEDTOANEVEREXPANDINGA
4、RRAYOFNEWLYINDUSTRIALIZINGECONOMIESNIESINTHETHIRDWORLDTHISSHIFTISCENTRALTOTHEEASTASIANMIRACLE,WHICHREFERSTOTHEHANDFULOFHIGHPERFORMINGASIANECONOMIESTHATHAVEATTAINEDLOFTYPERCAPITAGROWTHRATES,RELATIVELYLOWINCOMEINEQUALITY,HIGHEDUCATIONALATTAINMENT,RECORDLEVELSOFDOMESTICSAVINGANDINVESTMENT,ANDBOOMINGEXP
5、ORTSFROMTHE1960STOTHEMID1990SWORLDBANK,1993REGARDLESSOFWHETHERTHEGROWTHISDUETOPRODUCTIVITYGAINSORTOCAPITALACCUMULATIONKRUGMAN,1994YOUNG,1994,1995,THEIRECONOMICACHIEVEMENTISLARGELYATTRIBUTEDTOTHEADOPTIONOFEXPORTORIENTEDINDUSTRIALIZATIONASTHEREGIONSMAINDEVELOPMENTSTRATEGYTHISVIEWOFINTERNATIONALTRADEAS
6、THEFULCRUMFORSUSTAINEDECONOMICGROWTHINEASTASIA,WHILEUNASSAILABLEINITSMACROECONOMICBASICS,NONETHELESSLEAVESANUMBEROFCRITICALQUESTIONSUNANSWEREDINTERMSOFTHEMICROINSTITUTIONALFOUNDATIONSSUPPORTINGEASTASIANDEVELOPMENTWHYWEREJAPANANDTHEEASTASIANNIESSOUTHKOREA,TAIWAN,HONGKONGANDSINGAPORESOSUCCESSFULINEXPO
7、RTINGTODISTANTWESTERNMARKETS,GIVENTHEFORMIDABLESPATIALANDCULTURALDISTANCESTHATHADTOBEBRIDGEDHOWWERETHESEEASTASIANNATIONSABLETOSUSTAINTHEIRHIGHRATESOFEXPORTORIENTEDGROWTHOVERTHREETOFOURDECADES,INTHEFACEOFAVARIETYOFADVERSEECONOMICFACTORSSUCHASOILPRICEHIKES,RISINGWAGERATES,LABORSHORTAGES,CURRENCYAPPREC
8、IATIONS,AGLOBALRECESSION,ANDSPREADINGPROTECTIONISMINTHEIRMAJOREXPORTMARKETSUNDERWHATCONDITIONSCANTRADEBASEDGROWTHBECOMEAVEHICLEFORGENUINEINDUSTRIALUPGRADING,GIVENTHEFREQUENTCRITICISMSMADEOFLOWWAGE,LOWSKILL,ASSEMBLYORIENTEDEXPORTACTIVITIESDOASIASACCOMPLISHMENTSINTRADELEDINDUSTRIALIZATIONCONTAINSIGNIF
9、ICANTLESSONSFOROTHERREGIONSOFTHEWORLDTHISARTICLEWILLADDRESSTHESEQUESTIONSUSINGAGLOBALCOMMODITYCHAINSFRAMEWORKACOMMODITYCHAINREFERSTOTHEWHOLERANGEOFACTIVITIESINVOLVEDINTHEDESIGN,PRODUCTION,ANDMARKETINGOFAPRODUCTACRITICALDISTINCTIONINTHISAPPROACHISBETWEENBUYERDRIVENANDPRODUCERDRIVENCOMMODITYCHAINSJAPA
10、NINTHE1950SAND1960S,THEEASTASIANNIESDURINGTHE1970SAND1980S,ANDCHINAINTHE1990SBECAMEWORLDCLASSEXPORTERSPRIMARILYBYMASTERINGTHEDYNAMICSOFBUYERDRIVENCOMMODITYCHAINS,WHICHSUPPLYAWIDERANGEOFLABORINTENSIVECONSUMERPRODUCTSSUCHASAPPAREL,FOOTWEAR,TOYS,ANDSPORTINGGOODSTHEKEYTOSUCCESSINEASTASIASBUYERDRIVENCHAI
11、NSWASTOMOVEFROMTHEMEREASSEMBLYOFIMPORTEDINPUTSTRADITIONALLYASSOCIATEDWITHEXPORTPROCESSINGZONESTOAMOREDOMESTICALLYINTEGRATEDANDHIGHERVALUEADDEDFORMOFEXPORTINGKNOWNALTERNATIVELYASFULLPACKAGESUPPLYOROEMORIGINALEQUIPMENTMANUFACTURINGPRODUCTIONSUBSEQUENTLY,JAPANANDSOMEFIRMSINTHEEASTASIANNIESPUSHEDBEYONDT
12、HEOEMEXPORTROLETOORIGINALBRANDNAMEMANUFACTURINGOBMBYJOININGTHEIRPRODUCTIONEXPERTISEWITHTHEDESIGNANDSALEOFTHEIROWNBRANDEDMERCHANDISEINDOMESTICANDOVERSEASMARKETSFROMAGLOBALCOMMODITYCHAINSPERSPECTIVE,EASTASIASTRANSITIONFROMASSEMBLYTOFULLPACKAGESUPPLYDERIVESINLARGEMEASUREFROMITSABILITYTOESTABLISHCLOSELI
13、NKAGESWITHADIVERSEARRAYOFLEADFIRMSINBUYERDRIVENCHAINSLEADFIRMSARETHEPRIMARYSOURCESOFMATERIALINPUTS,TECHNOLOGYTRANSFER,ANDKNOWLEDGEINTHESEORGANIZATIONALNETWORKSINTHEAPPARELCOMMODITYCHAIN,DIFFERENTTYPESOFLEADFIRMSUSEDIFFERENTNETWORKSANDSOURCEINDIFFERENTPARTSOFTHEWORLDRETAILERSANDMARKETERSTENDTORELYONF
14、ULLPACKAGESOURCINGNETWORKS,INWHICHTHEYBUYREADYMADEAPPARELPRIMARILYFROMASIA,WHEREMANUFACTURERSINPLACESLIKEHONGKONG,TAIWANANDSOUTHKOREAHAVEHISTORICALLYSPECIALIZEDINTHISKINDOFPRODUCTIONASWAGELEVELSINTHOSECOUNTRIESHAVEGONEUP,EASTASIANMANUFACTURERSHAVETENDETODEVELOPMULTILAYEREDGLOBALSOURCINGNETWORKSWHERE
15、LOWWAGEASSEMBLYCANBEDONEINOTHERPARTSOFASIA,AFRICAANDLATINAMERICA,WHILETHENIEMANUFACTURERSPLAYACRITICALCOORDINATINGROLEINTHEFULLPACKAGEPRODUCTIONPROCESSBRANDEDMANUFACTURERS,BYCONTRAST,TENDTOCREATEPRODUCTIONNETWORKSTHATFOCUSONAPPARELASSEMBLYUSINGIMPORTEDINPUTSWHEREASFULLPACKAGESOURCINGNETWORKSAREGENER
16、ALLYGLOBAL,PRODUCTIONNETWORKSESTABLISHEDBYBRANDEDMANUFACTURERSAREPREDOMINANTLYREGIONALUSMANUFACTURERSGOTOMEXICOANDTHECARIBBEANBASIN,EUROPEANUNIONFIRMSLOOKTONORTHAFRICAANDEASTERNEUROPE,ANDJAPANANDTHEEASTASIANNIESLOOKTOLOWERWAGEREGIONSWITHINASIAINDUSTRIALUPGRADING,FROMTHISPERSPECTIVE,INVOLVESORGANIZAT
17、IONALLEARNINGTOIMPROVETHEPOSITIONOFFIRMSORNATIONSININTERNATIONALTRADENETWORKSGEREFFIANDTAM,1998PARTICIPATIONINGLOBALCOMMODITYCHAINSISANECESSARYSTEPFORINDUSTRIALUPGRADINGBECAUSEITPUTSFIRMSANDECONOMIESONPOTENTIALLYDYNAMICLEARNINGCURVESTHEREAREMANYOBSTACLES,HOWEVER,TOMOVINGUPTHESECHAINSFROMLABORINTENSI
18、VEACTIVITIESLIKEEXPORTORIENTEDASSEMBLY,TOMOREINTEGRATEDFORMSOFMANUFACTURINGLIKEOEMANDOBMPRODUCTION,TOTHEMOSTPROFITABLEAND/ORSKILLINTENSIVEECONOMICACTIVITIESSUCHASBREAKTHROUGHINNOVATIONSINNEWGOODSANDSERVICES,DESIGN,MARKETING,ANDFINANCETHEREFORE,WENEEDTOADDRESSNOTONLYWHYINDUSTRIALUPGRADINGOCCURSINGLOB
19、ALCOMMODITYCHAINS,BUTALSOHOWITOCCURSACOMMODITYCHAINSFRAMEWORKTHATATTEMPTSTOLINKINTERNATIONALTRADEANDINDUSTRIALUPGRADINGMUSTSPECIFYTHEMECHANISMSBYWHICHORGANIZATIONALLEARNINGOCCURSINTRADENETWORKSTYPICALTRAJECTORIESAMONGEXPORTROLESANDTHEORGANIZATIONALCONDITIONSTHATFACILITATEINDUSTRIALUPGRADINGMOVESSUCH
20、ASTHESHIFTFROMASSEMBLYTOFULLPACKAGENETWORKSTHEECONOMICTHEORYOFINDUSTRIALUPGRADINGISTHATASCAPITALBOTHHUMANANDPHYSICALBECOMESMOREABUNDANTRELATIVETOLABORANDTHEENDOWMENTSOFOTHERCOUNTRIES,NATIONSDEVELOPCOMPARATIVEADVANTAGESINCAPITALANDSKILLINTENSIVEINDUSTRIESPORTER,1990THISARTICLEWILLSHOW,HOWEVER,THATUPG
21、RADINGDOESNOTOCCURTOARANDOMSETOFCAPITALORSKILLINTENSIVEINDUSTRIESORACTIVITIES,BUTRATHERTOPRODUCTSTHATAREORGANIZATIONALLYRELATEDTHROUGHTHELEADFIRMSINGLOBALCOMMODITYCHAINSTHEMICROFOUNDATIONSOFTHISUPGRADINGPATTERNINVOLVEBOTHFORWARDMARKETINGANDBACKWARDSOURCINGLINKAGESFROMPRODUCTION,ANDTHEKINDOFLEARNINGT
22、HATOCCURSACROSSTHESESEGMENTSWITHREGARDTOMARKETING,COUNTRIESTHATAREUPGRADINGWITHINCOMMODITYCHAINSHAVEALREADYIDENTIFIEDTHEBUYERSFORTHEIRPRODUCTSWITHINTHECHAINSTHEIMPLICATIONISTHATMARKETINGOUTSIDETHECHAINISMOREDIFFICULTDUETOSEARCHCOSTSANDTHEFACTTHATFOREIGNBUYERSPROVIDEACCESSTOINFORMATIONTHATASSISTSLOCA
23、LSUPPLIERSINTHEIREXPORTANDMARKETINGEFFORTSRHEEETAL,1984FORSOURCINGLINKAGES,BOTHTECHNOLOGICALANDTACITKNOWLEDGEEXISTSABOUTHOWANDWHERETOESTABLISHNEWEXPORTCAPACITYFORFINISHEDPRODUCTSTHEREISACLEARPATTERNOFORGANIZATIONALSUCCESSIONINBUYERDRIVENCHAINS,HOWEVER,WHEREBYFOREIGNBUYERSTHATOCCUPYDISTINCTPOSITIONSO
24、RPRICEPOINTSINTHERETAILSECTORSOFTHEIRHOMEMARKETSSOURCEFROMEACHOFTHEMAJORASIANEXPORTINGNATIONSINDISTINCTIVECYCLESORSEQUENCESGEREFFI,1994THISSUCCESSIONMECHANISMDRIVESTHEGEOGRAPHICALEXPANSIONOFGLOBALSOURCINGNETWORKS,ASBUYERSFORLESSEXPENSIVEGOODSAREPUSHEDINTOLOWERCOSTPRODUCTIONSITES,ANDITISALSOCRUCIALFO
25、RINDUSTRIALUPGRADINGBECAUSETHEHIGHERPRICEPOINTSOFFASHIONABLERETAILERSREFLECTMORECOMPLICATEDPRODUCTSANDDIFFERENTIATEDSTYLESOUREMPIRICALFOCUSINTHISARTICLEWILLBETHEAPPARELINDUSTRY,WITHANEMPHASISONASIATHISSELECTIONISJUSTIFIEDONMULTIPLEGROUNDSAPPARELISONEOFTHEOLDESTANDLARGESTEXPORTINDUSTRIESINTHEWORLDMOS
26、TNATIONSPRODUCEFORTHEINTERNATIONALTEXTILEANDAPPARELMARKETDICKERSON,1995,P6,MAKINGTHISONEOFTHEMOSTGLOBALOFALLINDUSTRIESAPPARELISTHETYPICALSTARTERINDUSTRYFORCOUNTRIESENGAGEDINEXPORTORIENTEDINDUSTRIALIZATION,ANDITPLAYEDTHELEADINGROLEINEASTASIASEARLYEXPORTGROWTHTHEAPPARELINDUSTRYISAPROTOTYPICALBUYERDRIV
27、ENCOMMODITYCHAINBECAUSEITGENERATESAHIGHLYAGGRESSIVEPATTERNOFGLOBALSOURCINGTHROUGHAVARIETYOFORGANIZATIONALCHANNELS,INCLUDINGGIANTCOSTDRIVENDISCOUNTCHAINSWALMART,KMART,ORTARGET,UPSCALEBRANDEDMARKETERSLIZCLAIBORNE,TOMMYHILFIGER,NAUTICA,APPARELSPECIALTYSTORESTHELIMITED,THEGAP,ANDBURGEONINGPRIVATELABELPR
28、OGRAMSAMONGMASSMERCHANDISERETAILERSJCPENNEY,SEARSFINALLY,APPARELEMBODIESTWOCONTRASTINGPRODUCTIONSYSTEMSCHARACTERISTICOFBUYERDRIVENCHAINSTHEASSEMBLYANDTHEOEMMODELSWHEREASTHEASSEMBLYMODELISAFORMOFINDUSTRIALSUBCONTRACTINGINWHICHMANUFACTURERSPROVIDETHEPARTSFORSIMPLEASSEMBLYTOGARMENTSEWINGPLANTS,THEOEMMO
29、DELISAFORMOFCOMMERCIALSUBCONTRACTINGINWHICHTHEBUYERSELLERLINKAGEBETWEENFOREIGNMERCHANTSANDDOMESTICMANUFACTURERSALLOWSFORAGREATERDEGREEOFLOCALLEARNINGABOUTTHEUPSTREAMANDDOWNSTREAMSEGMENTSOFTHEAPPARELCHAINTHEORGANIZATIONOFTHEPAPERISASFOLLOWSFIRST,THEGLOBALCOMMODITYCHAINSFRAMEWORKWILLBEOUTLINED,WITHANE
30、MPHASISONTHESTRUCTUREANDDYNAMICSOFBUYERDRIVENCHAINSSECOND,THEROLEOFEACHOFTHEBIGBUYERSRETAILERS,MARKETERSANDMANUFACTURERSINFORGINGGLOBALSOURCINGNETWORKSINTHEAPPARELCOMMODITYCHAINWILLBEHIGHLIGHTEDTHIRD,ANINDUSTRIALUPGRADINGFRAMEWORKISINTRODUCEDTOHELPACCOUNTFORTHEMOSTSIGNIFICANTTRADESHIFTSAMONGGLOBALAP
31、PARELEXPORTERSTHEORGANIZATIONALBASISFORUPGRADINGISASSOCIATEDWITHDIFFERENTKINDSOFBUYERSELLERLINKS,ANDDISTINCTPATTERNSOFORGANIZATIONALSUCCESSIONAMONGFOREIGNBUYERSINEXPORTINGNATIONSFOURTH,FROMACOMMODITYCHAINSPERSPECTIVE,INDUSTRIALUPGRADINGISASSOCIATEDWITHTHEPROCESSOFBUILDING,EXTENDING,COORDINATINGANDCO
32、MPLETINGINTEGRATEDPRODUCTIONANDTRADENETWORKSINASIATHESENETWORKSARERESILIENTFORMSOFSOCIALCAPITALTHATAREAVALUABLECOMPETITIVEASSETINTHEGLOBALECONOMYFIFTH,WEWILLASSESSTHEIMPLICATIONSOFTHEASIANEXPERIENCEFORTHESOURCINGOFAPPARELINNORTHAMERICATHEUNITEDSTATESCURRENTLYISIMPORTINGGARMENTSFROMMEXICOANDTHECARIBB
33、EANBASINCOUNTRIESTHATHAVEBEENASSEMBLEDUSINGUSINPUTSOURANALYSISOFINDUSTRIALUPGRADINGINASIASUGGESTSTHATMEXICOWILLHAVETOMOVEBEYONDASSEMBLYPRODUCTIONANDESTABLISHAFULLPACKAGEOROEMMODELINORDERTOPROMOTEANINTEGRATEDNORTHAMERICANCOMMODITYCHAINIFFULLPACKAGESUPPLYDOESSUCCEEDINMEXICO,HOWEVER,ITWILLUTILIZEVERYDI
34、FFERENTKINDSOFNETWORKSTHANTHOSEFOUNDINASIABECAUSEOFINTERREGIONALVARIATIONSINTHEINDUSTRIALANDSPATIALORGANIZATIONOFTHEAPPARELCOMMODITYCHAIN1PRODUCERDRIVENANDBUYERDRIVENGLOBALCOMMODITYCHAINSINGLOBALCAPITALISM,ECONOMICACTIVITYISNOTONLYINTERNATIONALINSCOPE,ITISALSOGLOBALINORGANIZATIONINTERNATIONALIZATION
35、REFERSTOTHEGEOGRAPHICSPREADOFECONOMICACTIVITIESACROSSNATIONALBOUNDARIESASSUCH,ITISNOTANEWPHENOMENONINDEED,ITHASBEENAPROMINENTFEATUREOFTHEWORLDECONOMYSINCEATLEASTTHE17THCENTURYWHENCOLONIALEMPIRESBEGANTOCARVEUPTHEGLOBEINSEARCHOFRAWMATERIALSANDNEWMARKETSFORTHEIRMANUFACTUREDEXPORTSGLOBALIZATIONISMUCHMOR
36、ERECENTTHANINTERNATIONALIZATIONBECAUSEITIMPLIESTHEFUNCTIONALINTEGRATIONANDCOORDINATIONOFINTERNATIONALLYDISPERSEDACTIVITIESINDUSTRIALANDCOMMERCIALCAPITALHAVEPROMOTEDGLOBALIZATIONBYESTABLISHINGTWODISTINCTTYPESOFINTERNATIONALECONOMICNETWORKSPRODUCERDRIVENANDBUYERDRIVENCOMMODITYCHAINSFIG1PRODUCERDRIVENC
37、OMMODITYCHAINSARETHOSEINWHICHLARGE,USUALLYTRANSNATIONAL,MANUFACTURERSPLAYTHECENTRALROLESINCOORDINATINGPRODUCTIONNETWORKSINCLUDINGTHEIRBACKWARDANDFORWARDLINKAGESTHISISCHARACTERISTICOFCAPITALANDTECHNOLOGYINTENSIVEINDUSTRIESSUCHASAUTOMOBILES,AIRCRAFT,COMPUTERS,SEMICONDUCTORSANDHEAVYMACHINERYTHEAUTOMOBI
38、LEINDUSTRYOFFERSACLASSICILLUSTRATIONOFAPRODUCERDRIVENCHAIN,WITHMULTILAYEREDPRODUCTIONSYSTEMSTHATINVOLVETHOUSANDSOFFIRMSINCLUDINGPARENTS,SUBSIDIARIESANDSUBCONTRACTORSTHEAVERAGEJAPANESEAUTOMAKERSPRODUCTIONSYSTEM,FOREXAMPLE,COMPRISES170FIRSTTIER,4700SECONDTIER,AND31600THIRDTIERSUBCONTRACTORSHILL,1989,P
39、466FLORIDAANDKENNEY1991HAVEFOUNDTHATJAPANESEAUTOMOBILEMANUFACTURERSACTUALLYRECONSTITUTEDMANYASPECTSOFTHEIRHOMECOUNTRYSUPPLIERNETWORKSINNORTHAMERICADONER1991EXTENDSTHISFRAMEWORKTOHIGHLIGHTTHECOMPLEXFORCESTHATDRIVEJAPANESEAUTOMAKERSTOCREATEREGIONALPRODUCTIONSCHEMESFORTHESUPPLYOFAUTOPARTSINAHALFDOZENNA
40、TIONSINEASTANDSOUTHEASTASIAHENDERSON1989ANDBORRUS1997ALSOSUPPORTTHENOTIONTHATPRODUCERDRIVENCOMMODITYCHAINSHAVEESTABLISHEDANEASTASIANDIVISIONOFLABORINTHEIRSTUDIESOFTHEINTERNATIONALIZATIONOFTHEUSANDJAPANESESEMICONDUCTORINDUSTRIES译文服装商品链中的国际贸易和产业升级摘要本文使用一个全球商品链的角度去分析社会和组织层面的国际贸易网络。在连接国际贸易和产业升级上，本文说明发生在
41、贸易网络的组织学习机构；从组装到OEM与自有品牌出口的典型轨迹；以及有利于如从装配转移到产业升级的全包网络。实证的重点是对亚洲服装行业的重视。全球化已经改变了国家，企业和产业的竞争态势。这最清晰地反映在国际贸易模式的改变，其中发达国家进口的爆炸性增长表明，生产和许多制成品出口的重心已经转移到了在不断扩大阵营的新兴工业化经济体的第三世界里。从60年代初至90年代中期这种转变的核心是“东亚奇迹”,它指的是为数不多的高绩效的亚洲经济体已经达到了高的人均增长率、相对较低的收入不平等,高等教育素质,创记录的国内储蓄和投资,以及快速增长的出口（世界银行，1993）。无论增长是否是由于生产力收益或资本积累（
42、克鲁格曼，1994年，年轻，1994,1995），他们的经济成就在很大程度上归功于该地区的主要发展战略是采用外向型产业化。这观点作为经济持续增长的东亚国际贸易的支点，在其宏观经济基本无懈可击，但在支持东亚发展方面还有一些基础条件问题还没有解决。为什么日本和东亚新兴工业化经济体（韩国，台湾，香港和新加坡）能成功出口到遥远的西方市场，由于强大的空间和文化的距离相互了解了吗为何这些东亚国际在面对各种各样不利的经济因素如石油价格上涨，工资率上升，劳动力短缺，货币升值，全球经济衰退，还能维持出口导向型增长超过三四十年的高增长率，并在其主要的出口市场传播保护主义由于低工资，低技术，组装为主的出口交流频繁的
43、受到批评，在什么条件下可以以贸易为主的经济增长成为一个真正的产业升级工具而亚洲以贸易为主的工业化中是否暗含了世界其他地区的教训呢本文将针对这些问题采用全球商品链的框架。商品链是指整个的活动范围参与设计、生产、销售的一种产品。这种方法的一个重要区别是买方驱动和生产者驱动的商品链。日本在20世纪50年代和60年代，东亚新兴工业化国家在70年代和80年代，和在20世纪90年代中国成为主要由掌握了买方驱动商品链的动态，供应的劳动力密集型产品种类繁多的消费世界级的出口国如服装，鞋类，玩具和体育用品。东亚的买方驱动链成功的关键在于从进口投入仅仅装配（传统与出口加工区相关）转向更为国内综合性和高附加值的出口
44、称为全包或者供应形式或OEM的生产。随后，日本和东亚新兴工业化经济体以外的一些公司OEM出口推动作用，原品牌制造OBM自创品牌通过加入他们的生产经验和设计,开发了自己的品牌商品销售国内及海外市场。从全球商品链的角度来看，东亚从组装过渡到全包供应很打程度上与其自身能力，建立龙头企业，在买方驱动链多样化有密切联系。龙头企业是在这些组织网络知识方面物质投入，技术转移的主要来源。在服装商品链，在世界不同地区不同类型的龙头企业使用不同网络和来源。零售商和销售商往往依赖于全采购网络，他们主要从亚洲，如香港，台湾地区和韩国厂商在这历史上这种专门生产服装包那里买现成的。因为这些国家的工资水平上升，东亚制造商评
45、标发展多层次的全球采购网络在低工资的程序可以在亚洲，非洲和拉丁美洲的其他地方进行，而新型工业化经济的厂商在全包的生产过程中发挥了关键的协调作用。相反，品牌制造商往往把重点放在服装生产网络装配上使用进口投入。而全包的全球采购网络，主要是区域性的，一般由品牌厂家建立的美国的制造工艺，再培训计划前往墨西哥和加勒比海盆地，欧盟企业寻找到北非和东欧，日本和东亚新兴工业化经济体期望在亚洲低工资地区。产业升级，从这个角度看，涉及到组织学习，以提高公司或国家在国际贸易网络中的位置（格里芬和谭，1998）。全球商品生产链是一个产业升级的必要步骤，因为它把潜在的企业和经济放在了动态的学习曲线上。这里存在诸多障碍,
46、然而,被这链子捆锁在外向型的活动,例如从劳动密集型的组装,对综合的形式的制造像OEM和OBM自创品牌的产品,最有利可图或技术密集型的经济活动,如突破创新,在新产品和服务、设计、销售和财务。因此，我们不仅需要解决产业升级为什么会出现在全球商品链，而且还要知道它是如何发生的。一个商品链框架，试图连结国际贸易和产业升级必须注明在贸易网络中该机构是通过什么组织学习的；出口作用中的典型轨迹；以及有利于如从装配到全包网络的产业升级的组织条件。产业升级的经济理论是，随着资本（包括人力和物质的）变得比其他国家的劳动力和禀赋更丰富，国家有发展资本密集型和技术密集型产业的比较优势（波特，1990）。这篇文章将表明
47、，升级不是资本或技术密集型产业或活动，而是该组织是通过在全球商品链中的龙头企业的相关产品。这种升级模式的微观基础涉及产品远期（市场深造）和向后（采购）生产的联系，以及发生在这些领域的学习。关于市场营销，国家都在商品链升级时已经确定了其产品链的买家。这意味着，外链的营销更困难，因为搜寻成本和国外采购商提供获取信息，协助其出口和本地供应商的营销（RHEETAL，1984）。对于采购的联系，无论在技术和隐性知识都存在如何以及在何处建立新的出口成品的能力。有一个买方驱动链组织的清晰模式，在一个独特的周期中，国外采购商从亚洲主要出口国中占据每个零售业不同的位置（或价位）在其本土市场（格里芬，1994）。
48、这种继承机制带动了全球采购网络地域扩张，作为买家买更便宜的商品推动了低成本的生产，这也是产业升级的关键，因为高价位的时尚零售商反映更复杂的产品和有区别的风格。我们在本文的重点将是对亚洲服装行业的重视。这个选择是合理的多种理由。服装是世界上最古老和最大的出口行业之一。大多数国家为国际纺织品和服装市场（迪克森，1995年，第6页），使该行业的所有成为最全球性的。服装是典型的启动为以出口为导向的工业化国家从事产业，它起到了在东亚的出口增长初期的主导作用。服装行业是一个典型的买方驱动的商品链，因为它产生通过组织渠道，包括巨型成本驱动的折扣连锁店（沃尔玛，凯玛特，或目标），各种高档品牌营销（一种非常积极
49、的全球采购模式丽诗加邦，汤米希尔费格，诺蒂卡）。最后，服装体现了两种截然不同的生产系统的买方驱动链的特点组装和OEM模式。鉴于装配模型是工业分包，制造商提供简单的组装，服装缝纫零件厂的形式，OEM模式是商业分包形式，其中与国外客商及国内厂家的买卖双方的联系可支持更高度左右的服装链的上游和下游部分地方学习。本文的组织如下。首先，全球商品链框架将概述，具有的结构和买方驱动链动力学重点。第二，购房者的大锻件全球采购的服装商品链网络（零售商，销售商和制造商）每个角色将突出显示。第三，产业升级框架介绍，以帮助在全球服装出口最重要的贸易转移帐户。为提升组织基础是与不同类型的买方与卖方联系，并在出口国之间的外国买家组织演替不同模式。第四，从商品链的角度来看，产业升级，是与建设过程，扩展，综合协调，完成生产和亚洲的贸易网络联系在一起的。这些网络是社会资本的灵活形式，是一种宝贵的资产，全球经济的竞争力。第五，我们将评估服装采购在北美的亚洲经验的影响。目前，美国正在进口来自墨西哥和加勒比海盆地的服装使用美国投入组装。我们在亚洲的产业升级的分析表明，墨西哥将超越组装生产，并建立一个全包或OEM模式，以促进综合北美商品链。如果全包供给成功地在墨西哥，它将利用比在亚洲发现更复杂的网络，因为在服装商品链产业和空间组织跨区域的变异网络有很多。一、生产者驱动和购买者驱动
