1、本科毕业论文外文翻译题目THEEVOLUTIONANDSTRUCTUREOFINDUSTRIALCLUSTERSINJAPAN出处SMALLBUSINESSECONOMICS作者HIDEKIYAMAWAKI译文ABSTRACTTHISPAPERFOCUSESONTWOASPECTSOFTHEEVOLUTIONANDSTRUCTUREOFCLUSTERSINJAPAN,NAMELY,WHATGIVESRISETOCLUSTERSANDWHATBENEFITSAREACQUIREDBYSMALLFIRMSFROMPARTICIPATINGINCLUSTERSTHEDETERMINANTSOFCLU
2、STERINGAREDISCUSSEDBYWAYOFAREVIEWOFTHEHISTORYOF14INDUSTRIALCLUSTERSWHICHCOVERAWIDERANGEOFINDUSTRIESANDLOCATIONSINJAPANITISNOTEDTHATDIFFERENTFACTORSDOMINATEINDIFFERENTCASESAMONGTHEMOREIMPORTANTONESARETHEEXISTENCEOFLEADINGLARGEFIRMS,THEAVAILABILITYOFAPOOLEDLABORMARKET,ANDTHEPRESENCEOFPUBLICRESEARCHAND
3、TESTINGFACILITIESTHEFOURMOSTIMPORTANTBENEFITSFROMCLUSTERSREPORTEDBYSMALLFIRMSAREISPECIALIZATIONIIEASEOFPROCUREMENTIIIDIFFUSIONOFTECHNOLOGY,ANDIVPUBLICPOLICYSUPPORTACCESSTOSKILLEDWORKERSISNOTREPORTEDTOBEASIGNIFICANTBENEFITTHISMAYBEEXPLAINEDBYTHEFACTTHATTHEDOMINANTSOURCEOFSKILLSACQUISITIONAMONGJAPANES
4、EWORKERSISONTHEJOBTRAININGANDSUCHSKILLSMAYBETOOFIRMSPECIFICTOBEUSEFULTOOTHERS,EVENWITHINAGEOGRAPHICALLYCONCENTRATEDCLUSTER1INTRODUCTIONITISAWELLESTABLISHEDFACTTHATJAPANHOSTSTHELARGESTNUMBEROFSMALLANDMEDIUMSIZEDENTERPRISESSMESAMONGINDUSTRIALIZEDCOUNTRIESWHENSMESAREBROADLYDEFINEDASTHOSEENTERPRISESWITH
5、FEWERTHAN300EMPLOYEESORLESSTHANYEN100MILLIONINCAPITAL,MORETHAN99PERCENTOFALLENTERPRISESINJAPANESEMANUFACTURINGWERECLASSIFIEDASSMESIN1994FURTHER,67PERCENTOFTOTALEMPLOYEESINMANUFACTURINGWORKEDFORSMESIN19941ANEQUALLYIMPORTANTFEATUREOFJAPANSINDUSTRIALORGANIZATIONISTHATJAPANSSMESOFTENFORMCLUSTERSACCORDIN
6、GTOTHE1996SURVEYOFTHESMALLANDMEDIUMENTERPRISEAGENCY,ATOTALOF537CLUSTERSAREREPORTEDTOEXISTTHROUGHOUTJAPANWHILETHEECONOMICSIGNIFICANCEOFTHESECLUSTERSVARIESWIDELYFROMCLUSTERSPRODUCINGPRIMARILYFOREXPORTSTOCLUSTERSPRODUCINGINDIGENOUSGOODSLITTLEKNOWNOUTSIDEJAPAN,ANIMPORTANTQUESTIONCOMMONTOTHESECLUSTERSARI
7、SEWHEREDOTHESECLUSTERSCOMEFROMWHATARETHEKEYDRIVERSFORTHEBIRTHANDGROWTHOFTHESECLUSTERSINJAPANWHATCOMPETITIVEADVANTAGEDOTHEYHAVETHEPURPOSEOFTHISPAPERISTOADDRESSTHESEISSUESSPECIFICALLY,THEPAPERFIRSTIDENTIFIESFACTORSTHATAREIMPORTANTINSHAPINGTHEEVOLUTIONOFCLUSTERSINJAPANSECOND,ITDESCRIBESTHESTRUCTUREOFJA
8、PANSCLUSTERSANDEXAMINESTHEIRSOURCESOFCOMPETITIVEADVANTAGEWHILECLUSTERSAREDEFINEDGENERALLYASGEOGRAPHICCONCENTRATIONSOFINTERCONNECTEDCOMPANIESANDINSTITUTIONSINAPARTICULARBUSINESSFIELDPORTER,1990,1998,EACHCLUSTERVARIESGREATLYINTERMSOFKEYFEATURESSUCHASGEOGRAPHICLOCATIONS,PRODUCTS,FUNCTIONS,ANDPATTERNSOF
9、INTERFIRMLINKAGESCLUSTERSDIFFERFROMEACHOTHERBECAUSEOFDIFFERENCESINHISTORICALCIRCUMSTANCES,DEMANDCONDITIONS,SUPPORTINGINDUSTRIES,ANDCOMPETITIVECONDITIONSTHATUNDERLIETHEIREVOLUTIONSOMECLUSTERSARISEFROMPECULIARHISTORICALCONDITIONS,YETOTHERSMAYDEVELOPTHROUGHTHECONFLUENCEOFVARIOUSECONOMICCONDITIONSTHEINI
10、TIALECONOMICCONDITIONSTHATSHAPEDACLUSTER,HOWEVER,DONOTNECESSARILYREMAINCONSTANTBEYONDCERTAINPERIODSRATHER,ECONOMICCONDITIONSSURROUNDINGCLUSTERSMAYCHANGEOVERTIMEBECAUSEOFCHANGESINDOMESTICANDINTERNATIONALCOMPETITIVECONDITIONSONTHEBASISOFINFORMATIONPROVIDEDINTHEPREVIOUSSURVEYSONJAPANSMANUFACTURINGCLUST
11、ERSPEOPLESFINANCECORPORATION,1987,1995MITI,1996SMEA,1997ITOANDURATA,1997,1998,THISPAPEREXAMINESASAMPLEOF14MAJORCASESOFMANUFACTURINGCLUSTERSINJAPANTHATHAVESHOWNHIGHPROPENSITIESTOEXPORTAFTERPROVIDINGABRIEFDESCRIPTIONONTHEHISTORICALDEVELOPMENTOFEACHOFTHESECLUSTERS,THEPAPEREXTRACTSKEYDRIVINGFORCESFORTHE
12、EVOLUTIONOFACLUSTERTHE14CLUSTERSSTUDIEDMANUFACTUREAWIDERANGEOFPRODUCTSINCLUDINGSILK,COTTON,ANDSYNTHETICFABRICSAPPARELCERAMICGOODSGENERALMACHINERYAUTOMOBILEPARTSBINOCULARSSILVERWAREANDCUTLERYHANDTOOLSANDEYEGLASSFRAMESTHEREMAINDEROFTHISPAPERISORGANIZEDASFOLLOWSINTHENEXTSECTION,EVOLUTIONARYPATTERNSOFTH
13、ISSAMPLEOF14CLUSTERSAREQUALITATIVELYEXAMINEDTODERIVEACERTAINSETOFFACTORSTHATCONTRIBUTEDTOTHEBIRTHOFCLUSTERSTHISANALYSISIDENTIFIESHISTORICALCIRCUMSTANCES,PRIOREXISTENCEOFRELATEDINDUSTRIESINTHEREGION,PRIOREXISTENCEOFRELATEDCLUSTERSINNEIGHBORINGREGIONS,TECHNOLOGYTRANSFERSFROMOTHERCLUSTERSANDFOREIGNCOUN
14、TRIES,ANDREGIONALGOVERNMENTPOLICYASMOSTIMPORTANTDRIVERSOFTHEBIRTHANDGROWTHOFCLUSTERSSECTION3DESCRIBESSTRUCTURALFEATURESOFTHESECLUSTERSANDEXAMINESVARIOUSSOURCESOFADVANTAGETHATTHEYCREATETHEANALYSISFINDSTHATTHEEXISTENCEOFSMALLANDMEDIUMENTERPRISESWITHSPECIALIZEDSKILLSINANINDUSTRYINAGEOGRAPHICSPACEISLIKE
15、LYTOCREATEAGGLOMERATIONINJAPANESECLUSTERSSECTION4EXAMINESTHEDEVELOPMENTOFTECHNOLOGICALANDHUMANASSETSINJAPANESECLUSTERSSECTION5SUMMARIZESTHEKEYFINDINGSANDCONCLUDESTHEPAPER2EVOLUTIONOFINDUSTRIALCLUSTERSINJAPANASAMPLEOF14CLUSTERSINJAPANWASSELECTEDFROMTHECLUSTERSPREVIOUSLYSTUDIEDBYTHEPEOPLESFINANCECORPO
16、RATION1987,1995,MITI1996,SMEA1997,ANDITOANDURATA1997,1998THE14CLUSTERSWERECHOSENRATHERSUBJECTIVELYBYUSINGTHEFOLLOWINGCRITERIA1THECLUSTERISDISTINCTIVEINTHATINTERCONNECTEDFIRMSARELOCATEDINAGEOGRAPHICALLYCONCENTRATEDAREAANDPRODUCEAPARTICULARCLASSOFPRODUCTS2THECLUSTERHASBEENIMPORTANTINTERMSOFTHESIZEOFEC
17、ONOMICACTIVITY3THECLUSTERHASBEENCOMPETITIVEININTERNATIONALMARKETSWITHSIGNIFICANTLYHIGHEXPORTSHAREAND4THEEVOLUTIONPATTERNOFTHECLUSTERISUNIQUETHELOCATIONSOFTHESECLUSTERSARENOTCONCENTRATEDINONEPARTICULARAREABUTDISPERSEDWIDELYACROSSJAPANINWHATFOLLOWS,EACHOFTHESECLUSTERSISBRIEFLYDESCRIBEDFOCUSINGONITSHIS
18、TORY,KEYCONDITIONSFORBIRTH,ANDINTERFIRMLINKAGES3STRUCTUREOFINDUSTRIALCLUSTERSINJAPANSOURCESOFADVANTAGEINJAPANSCLUSTERSINTERPRETINGTHESEMINALWORKOFMARSHALL1920,KRUGMAN1991POINTEDOUTTHATTHEADVANTAGEOFCONCENTRATEDPRODUCTIONISGENERATEDBYTHREEDISTINCTIVESOURCESLABORMARKETPOOLING,SPECIALIZEDINPUTS,ANDTECH
19、NOLOGICALSPILLOVERSINTHISSECTION,WEWILLFIRSTLAYOUTTHESETHREECAUSESWITHADDITIONALCONSIDERATIONANDTHENEXAMINEWHICHONEOFTHEMISMOSTIMPORTANTFORTHECLUSTERSINJAPANBYREVIEWINGTHESMEASURVEYRESULTLABORMARKETPOOLINGBYCONCENTRATINGANUMBEROFFIRMSINANINDUSTRINTHESAMELOCATION,ALOCALIZEDINDUSTRYGAINSANADVANTAGEFRO
20、MOFFERINGAPOOLEDMARKETFORWORKERSWITHSPECIALIZEDSKILLSBOTHWORKERSWITHSPECIALIZEDSKILLSWHOSEEKEMPLOYMENTANDFIRMSTHATSEEKSUCHWORKERSAREBETTEROFFIFTHEYGETACCESSTOTHEPOOLEDLABORMARKETINTHESAMELOCATIONMARSHALL,1920KRUGMAN,1991WHETHERTHISFACTORISRELEVANTANDIMPORTANTFORJAPANESECLUSTERSDEPENDSPRESUMABLYONTHE
21、MOBILITYOFSKILLEDWORKERSBETWEENFIRMSWITHINACLUSTERANDBETWEENGEOGRAPHICAREASBECAUSEJAPANESEWORKERSTENDTOSTAYINTHESAMEFIRMUNTILRETIREMENT,THEBENEFITOFAGGLOMERATIONARISINGFROMLABORMARKETPOOLINGFORSKILLEDWORKERSMAYBERELATIVELYSMALLINAJAPANESECLUSTERONTHEOTHERHAND,THISADVANTAGEMAYBEMOREIMPORTANTINLABORMA
22、RKETSFORPARTTIMEWORKERSASINTHECASESOFAPPARELANDTEXTILECLUSTERS,PARTTIMEWORKERSAREOFTENFEMALEWORKERSWHOARELOCALRESIDENTSANDWORKATHOMETHEIRWAGESAREUNDERNORMALCIRCUMSTANCESMUCHLOWERTHANREGULAREMPLOYEESAVAILABILITYOFFIRMSWITHSPECIALIZEDSKILLSANDCOMPETENCIESAGGLOMERATIONISCREATEDINALOCALIZEDINDUSTRYBECAU
23、SEITCANSUPPORTSUPPLIERSWITHSPECIALIZEDSKILLSANDCAPABILITIESCAPACITYUTILIZATIONOFSPECIALIZEDMACHINERYCANBEINCREASEDANDMAINTAINEDATAHIGHLEVELINALOCALIZEDINDUSTRYTHATPRODUCESTHESAMEKINDOFPRODUCTSTHISINTURNMAKESTHELOCALIZEDINDUSTRYMOREEFFICIENTMARSHALL,1920KRUGMAN,1991IFTHEMINIMUMEFFICIENTSCALEOFPRODUCT
24、IONVARIESACROSSARANGEOFPRODUCTSANDTHROUGHDIFFERENTSTAGESOFTHEPRODUCTIONPROCESS,THENMANUFACTURERSCANCHOOSEANOPTIMALCOMBINATIONOFOPERATIONSBYWORKINGCLOSELYWITHANUMBEROFSPECIALIZEDSUPPLIERSMANUFACTURERSCANBENEFITFROMTHEAVAILABILITYOFSUCHSUPPLIERSASTHEYCHOOSEARIGHTTECHNOLOGYINRESPONSETOTHESCALEOFPRODUCT
25、IONATEACHSTAGEOFTHEPROCESSTHROUGHASUBCONTRACTINGBASEDMANUFACTURINGSYSTEMTHEAVAILABILITYOFTHENUMBEROFFIRMSWITHCOMPLEMENTARYSKILLSALSOALLOWSMANUFACTURERSTOPRODUCEALARGEVARIETYOFPRODUCTIFVARIETYISPRODUCEDTHROUGHAWIDERANGEOFMATERIALSANDCOMPONENTSTHATAREHANDLEDEFFICIENTLYBYSPECIALISTSASWELLASTHROUGHSTAGE
26、SOFSPECIALIZEDOPERATIONS,THENMANUFACTURERSWILLBENEFITFROMWORKINGWITHSUPPLIERSWITHSUCHCAPABILITIESWHILESUCHDIVISIONOFLABORCANBECONTRACTEDBETWEENFIRMSINTHEDIFFERENTGEOGRAPHICSPACES,ITISMOREEFFICIENTLYANDEASILYORGANIZEDBETWEENNEARBYFIRMSANEXAMPLEOFTHEMECHANICALPENCILINDUSTRYINJAPANSHOWSTHATTHEMANUFACTU
27、RERMAYSUFFERFROMWORKINGWITHSUPPLIERSSCATTEREDGEOGRAPHICALLYINDIFFERENTSTAGESOFTHEPRODUCTIONSYSTEMMISHINA,1993THELONGTRAVELDISTANCEOFWORKINPROCESSIMPAIREDTHETIMELINESSOFDELIVERYANDTHEREFOREREDUCEDPRODUCTIONEFFICIENCYINTHISCASE4DEVELOPMENTOFFIRMCAPABILITIESINJAPANESECLUSTERSSKILLFORMATIONTHEANALYSISIN
28、THEPREVIOUSSECTIONFINDSTHATTHEEXISTENCEOFSUPPLIERSWITHSPECIALIZED,COMPLEMENTARYSKILLSISTHEMOSTLIKELYSOURCEOFAGGLOMERATIONINAJAPANESECLUSTERONTHEOTHERHAND,THESMEASURVEYDOESNOTSEEMTOPROVIDEEVIDENCETHATSUPPORTSTHEHYPOTHESISTHATTHECREATIONOFAPOOLEDLABORMARKETFORSKILLEDWORKERSINALOCALIZEDINDUSTRYOFFERSAN
29、ADVANTAGETOBOTHLOCALFIRMSANDWORKERS22WHYISAPOOLEDLABORMARKETFORSKILLEDWORKERSNOTIMPORTANTSOURCEOFADVANTAGEINJAPANESECLUSTERTHEWAYINWHICHSKILLSARECREATEDANDDEVELOPEDINJAPANESEFIRMS,ANDTHEWAYINWHICHSUCHHUMANSKILLSAREALLOCATEDAMONGFIRMSMAYPROVIDEANANSWERASISWELLKNOWN,ONTHEJOBTRAININGISTHEMOSTCOMMONLYUS
30、EDMETHODTOTRAINWORKERSINJAPANESECORPORATIONSKOIKE,1988THEPREVALENCEOFONTHEJOBTRAININGINJAPANISBASEDONTHEPREMISESTHATMOSTSKILLSARELEARNEDONLYBYDOING,ANDTHATSOMEOFTHESESKILLSARESPECIFICTOTHEFIRMORTOTHEPLANTTHISFIRMSPECIFICNATUREOFHUMANSKILLSINTURNTENDTODISCOURAGETHEWORKERTOMOVETOANOTHERFIRMSINCETHEWOR
31、KERWILLLOSESOMEOFTHESKILLSACQUIREDINTHEFIRMIFTHEWORKERMOVESTOTHEANOTHERFIRMTHEFIRMWILLNOTBEABLETOREPLACETHEWORKEREASILYWITHINASHORTPERIODWITHANEWRECRUITWITHOUTIMPAIRINGEFFICIENCYTHISINTURNMOTIVATESBOTHWORKERSANDFIRMSTOUSEAMECHANISMTHATISINTERNALTOFIRMSRATHERTHANAMECHANISMTHATUSEEXTERNALMARKETSTOALLO
32、CATEHUMANRESOURCESODAGIRI,1992INSUM,THEANALYSISINTHISSECTIONANDTHEPREVIOUSSECTIONSUGGESTSTHATTHEFIRMSINANINDUSTRIALCLUSTERINJAPANAREMORELIKELYTOBENEFITFROMSUPPORTINGLARGENUMBERSOFSUPPLIERSWITHSPECIALIZEDSKILLSSOMEOFTHEHUMANSKILLSINTHESEFIRMSAREFIRMSPECIFICANDDEVELOPEDINTERNALLYWITHINTHEFIRMSTHROUGHO
33、NTHEJOBTRAININGSINCESUCHSKILLSAREONLYINFREQUENTLYACQUIREDFROMOTHERFIRMSINTHESAMECLUSTER,ALOCALIZEDINDUSTRYINJAPANISLESSLIKELYTOSUPPORTAPOOLEDLABORMARKETFORSKILLEDWORKERSDEVELOPMENTOFTECHNOLOGICALASSETSWHILETHEACCESSTOAPOOLEDLABORFORSKILLEDWORKERSINANINDUSTRIALCLUSTERINJAPANISUNLIKELYTOBEANIMPORTANTS
34、OURCEOFAGGLOMERATION,TECHNOLOGYSPILLOVERSAREMORELIKELYTOBEANADVANTAGEOFCLUSTERINGHOWDOESACLUSTERFACILITATETHEDIFFUSIONOFNEWTECHNOLOGYANDOTHERKNOWLEDGEASWASDISCUSSEDEARLIERINTHISPAPER,KNOWLEDGESPILLOVERSAMONGFIRMSINTHESAMECLUSTERCANOCCURTHROUGHVARIOUSINSTITUTIONSSUCHASTRADEASSOCIATIONS,PUBLICTESTINGA
35、NDRESEARCHCENTERS,PUBLICTECHNICALCENTERS,WHOLESALERSASSOCIATIONS,ANDLOCALCHAMBERSOFCOMMERCEINADDITIONTOSUCHINSTITUTIONS,VARIOUSFORMSOFINTERFIRMCOOPERATIONANDCONTACTSWITHINACLUSTERAREALSOLIKELYTOFACILITATEKNOWLEDGESPILLOVERSTABLEVSUMMARIZESTHESMEASURVEYRESULTONTHEPATTERNOFINTERFIRMCOOPERATIONINJAPANS
36、INDUSTRIALCLUSTERSOUTOFTHE123CLUSTERSTHATRESPONDEDTOTHEQUESTIONOFWHATTYPESOFINTERFIRMCOOPERATIONTHEYPARTICIPATEIN,64PERCENTOFTHEMPOINTEDOUTJOINTRTHEHIERARCHICALRELATIONSHIPBETWEENMANUFACTURERSANDMULTIPLELAYERSOFSUPPLIERSTHESMALLSIZEOFSUPPLIERSTHEIMPORTANCEOFONTHEJOBTRAININGTHELOWDEGREEOFLABORMOBILIT
37、YOFSKILLEDWORKERSBETWEENFIRMSTHEPREFERENCEFORINTERNALLABORMARKETSTOEXTERNALLABORMARKETSTOALLOCATEHUMANRESOURCESTHEESTABLISHMENTOFVARIOUSPUBLICTESTING,RESEARCH,ANDTECHNICALCENTERSBYTHELOCALGOVERNMENTSTHEEXISTENCEOFVARIOUSINSTITUTIONSSUCHASTRADEASSOCIATIONS,BUSINESSASSOCIATIONS,ANDWHOLESALERSASSOCIATI
38、ONSANDTHEROLESSUCHINSTITUTIONSPLAYINFACILITATINGTHECOMMUNICATIONBETWEENFIRMSINACLUSTER,AREALLIMPORTANTCHARACTERISTICSOFJAPANSINDUSTRIALORGANIZATIONTHATDISTINGUISHJAPANSINDUSTRIALCLUSTERSFROMTHOSEINOTHERCOUNTRIESSUCHASINTHEUNITEDSTATESAMONGTHEADVANTAGESIDENTIFIEDINTHEPAPER,THATCREATEDBYTHEEXISTENCEOF
39、SPECIALIZEDSUPPLIERSINALOCALIZEDINDUSTRYISCONSIDEREDTHEMOSTIMPORTANTELEMENTINCREATINGAGGLOMERATIONECONOMIESASUPPLIERSSKILLSANDCAPABILITIESCOMPLEMENTOTHERSUPPLIERSSKILLSANDCAPABILITIES,WHICHINTURNCOMPLEMENTMANUFACTURERSSKILLSANDCAPABILITIESTHROUGHSUCHANETWORK,FIRMSDEVELOPTHESKILLSSPECIFICTOACLUSTERTH
40、ECASEANALYSISOFTHISPAPERFINDSTHATFIRMSDEVELOPANDACCUMULATESUCHSKILLSOVERTIME,WHICHINTURNBECOMEIMPORTANTASSETSTHATOFTENDETERMINETHECLUSTERSEVOLUTIONPATH译文日本产业集群的演化与结构摘要本文着重于日本产业集群的演化和结构这两方面,分别是什么产生了集群,以及小企业从产业集群中获得什么好处。对集群的决定因素,散射的方式,讨论了日本的14个产业集群及相关行业。据指出,在不同的情况下不同的因素占主导地位。其中较重要的是存在领先地位的大公司,汇集一可用性劳动
41、力市场和公共研究以及测试存在的设施。四个最重要的因素是(一)专业化(二)易于采购(三)扩散的技术,(四)市民政策支持。获得熟练的工人是一个明显的好处。这可能是解释一事实,即在职培训是日本工人的技能收购的主要来源,这种技能可能过于具体到企业是有益的人,即使在地理上集中的集群。一、引言这是一个公认的事实,日本是集群数量最多的小型和中小型企业(SMES)的工业化国家。当中小型企业与1994年被广泛定义为这些企业的雇员少于300或小于1亿日元资金,超过日本制造业所有企业的99。此外,1994年67的总制造业员工在中小企业工作。对日本的产业组织同样重要的是,日本的中小型企业往往形成集群。根据中小型企业局
42、,1996年的调查报告显示在日本存在一共537个产业集群。虽然这些集群的经济意义差别很大,为集群生产用于生产小日本以外,一个重要问题的共同认识到这些簇群主要原货物出口出现这些集群从哪里何而来什么是日本的诞生和成长的这些集群的关键驱动因素他们有哪些竞争优势本文的目的是为了解决这些问题尤其,本文首先确定日本集群发展的重要因素。其次,它描述了日本的集群结构,并探讨其竞争优势的来源。虽然集群是指相互关联的公司和机构一般在特定业务领域(波特,1990年,1998年),每个群集具有不同的功能联系,如地理位置,产品,功能和模式的企业间联系。集群间有很多不同,因为在历史条件,需求条件,产业配套,竞争条件的差异
43、下发生演变。一些集群产生在特殊的历史条件下,但其他集群可能通过发展汇合各种经济条件认为初步形成了集群经济条件,但是,超过一定期限并不一定保持不变。相反,由于国内和国际竞争条件围绕集群经济状况的变化可能随时间而改变。通过日本的制造业集群以往的调查提供的资料(人民的金融公司,1987,1995通产省,1996年中小企业处,1997年伊藤和浦田,1997年,1998年),本文考察了14个样本制造业在日本的倾向已经表明大概的高出口集群。在提供对这些集群各个历史发展的简要介绍,本文摘录了集群演进的主要驱动力。研究的14个集群制造出各种各样的产品,包括丝,棉,化纤面料,服装,陶瓷制品,一般机械,汽车配件望
44、远镜银器和餐具,手工具和眼镜框。本文的其余部分组织如下。在下一节中,对14类样品的进化模式进行了定性研究,以获得促成了某些设置集群的诞生的长期因素。这一分析标识的历史条件下,相关产业在该地区,周边相关集群地区,从其他联网与外国,并作为集群的诞生和成长的最重要动力自治区政府之前已存在的技术转让政策之前已存在。第3节描述了这些集群的结构特征,并探讨各种来源,他们创造的优势。分析认为,中小型企业生存在一个专业技能行业的在地理空间可能造成日本集群集聚。第4节探讨了技术和人力资产在日本群的发展。最后,第5节总结和主要成果的文件。二、日本产业集群的演化日本集群的14个样本是从以前由人民国际金融公司研究团簇
45、选择(1987年,1995年),通产省(1996),中小企业处(1997),伊藤和浦田(1997,1998)。14类入选主要使用下列标准(1)集群是相互关联的企业在这独特的地理位置位于一个集中的区域,产生一个特定类别的产品,(2)集群在经济活动规模中重要性(3)集群已在国际市场竞争力显着高出口份额及(4)集群的演化模式是独一无二的。这些产业群的地点不集中在一个特定的地区,但广泛分散在日本。接下来,对这些产业群集中的每一个进行简要介绍它的历史,诞生的关键条件,企业间的联系。三、日本产业集群的结构1、日本产业集群的资源优势解读马歇尔开创性工作(1920年),克鲁格曼(1991)指出,在集中生产优势
46、,是由三种不同来源所产生劳动力市场池,专门投入和技术溢出效应。在本节中,我们将先考虑这三个原因,然后检查其中,其中之一是在日本最重要的集群中小企业处调查通过审查的结果。2、劳动力市场汇集集中在同一位置的企业,具有一个本地化的行业收益的优势,从提供一个集中的市场具有专业技能的工人。这两个具有特殊技能的就业和企业谁是寻求这样的工人,在同一地点汇集劳动力市场工人将获得更好的收益(马歇尔,1920年,克鲁格曼,1991)。无论这个因素对日本产业集群是相关的和重要的主要依赖对技术工人在企业群集之间的地理区域之间的流动。由于日本工人往往留在同一家公司,直到退休,从技术工人劳动力市场中出现的集聚效益可能会相
47、对日本产业集群小。另一方面,这种优势可能会更体现在兼职工人的劳动市场。如服装和纺织品集群的情况下,兼职工人往往是当地居民和在家工作的女工。根据他们的工资比有专门技能和定期集聚在一个本地化的行业制造能力的公司较低,因为它可以正常的支持具有专业技能和能力的供应。专用机械的高利用率可提高和保持本地化行业生产的同类产品处在高水平。反过来,这使得本地化行业更为有效(马歇尔,1920年,克鲁格曼,1991)。如果最小有效规模的生产多个产品,并通过不同阶段的生产过程,可以选择不同制造商,然后通过与一些专门的供应商密切合作。制造商可以受益于这些供应商的提供,他们选择通过一个分包为基础的制造系统利用合适的技术来
48、应对生产规模中每个阶段。对企业数量与互补的可用性技能还允许制造商生产种类繁多的产品。如果是通过各种各样的材料处理,以及由专家通过专项行动产生的各种有效成分,那么制造商将受益于供应商的这种能力。尽管这样的劳动分工承包公司之间可以在不同的地理空间,但更高效的是与附近的公司主办。以日本的自动铅笔行业为例表明,制造商可能会与分散在不同阶段的地域生产系统(三品,1993)供应商合作。工作过程中的距离远损害了交货的及时性,因此在这种情况下降低了生产效率。四、日本集群发展的企业能力1、技能的形成在上一节的分析发现,有专门的供应商,存在互补的技能,是日本产业集群最有可能来源。在另一方面,调查似乎没有提供证据支
49、持这一假设中小企业集聚在一个熟练的工人集中的劳动力市场形成本地化行业可以为当地企业带来优势。日本集群为什么是一个熟练的工人集中的劳动力市场没有优势的重要来源在日本企业创建和发展道路的技巧方式中,人的技能可能会给企业之间的分配提供答案。众所周知,在职培训是训练日本企业工人最常用的方法(小池,1988)。在日本在职培训的基础上,大多数技能是一些公司或该工厂的特定技能。这种技能,从而坚定的阻止工人转移到另一家公司,因为如果工人移动到另一家公司,工人将失去在该公司学到的一些技能。该公司短期内不会更新招募工人这样不容易损害效率。这反过来又促使工人和企业用一种机制,即企业内部的机制,而不是利用外部市场分配(ODAGIRI,1992)的人力资源。总之,在本节和前一节的分析表明,在日本的产业集群中企业更可能受益于配套的供应商和大批专业技能。国内的公司通过在职培训开发的这些企业技能是企业特有的技能。由于这些技能是很少从其他相同的群集公司能学到的,在日本本地化的行业是不太可能支持对技术工人汇集的劳动力市场。2、发展技术资产虽然对技术工人汇集的劳动力市场不太可能是日本产业集群集聚的一个重要来源,但技术外溢有可能成为集群优势。集群如何促进新技术和其他知识的传播正如本文前面讨论的,在同一间知识溢出的集群企业可以通过诸如发生行业协会,公开测试和研究中心,公共技术中心,批发商协会,各