1、（20_届）本科毕业设计英语从禁忌语与委婉语看中西文化的差异THESTUDYOFTABOOANDEUPHEMISMINENGLISHANDCHINESE1摘要语言和文化是一种辩证的关系，每种语言都是其文化的一部分，语言既服务于文化又反映着文化的需要。委婉语与禁忌语是人们使用语言的重要形式，在人际交往中起着重要的作用。委婉语与禁忌语随着文明的发展，沉淀了丰富的文化内涵。语言是社会发展的产物，同时也就反映了社会生活，随着历史的进步的发展，语言也发生了很多的变化。由于宗教、迷信、礼仪以及科技不发达的原因，某些语言就被禁止使用，同是也就出现了用另外的语言来替代这种语言的现象，于是就出现了委婉语与禁忌语
2、。在不同的民族和文化中都存在着委婉语与禁忌语，如果我们掌握了他们，就能够在日常生活特别是在跨文化交际中，提高我们的交际能力。本文通过介绍委婉语与禁忌语的定义、形成方式、各自的在不同文化中的特点、以及委婉语与禁忌语在中西方文化上的宗教、等级观念、礼仪等方面的具体比较来更好的分析委婉语与禁忌语，便于了解不同的文化，这样就能更好的掌握它们，并运用到实际当中，提高交际能力，避免不必要的误会。关键词委婉语，禁忌语，语言，文化，比较2ABSTRACTTHERELATIONBETWEENLANGUAGEANDCULTUREISDIALECTICEVERYLANGUAGEISAPARTOFITSCULTURE
3、LANGUAGEDOESNOTONLYSERVETHECULTURE,BUTALSOISAMIRRORFORTHECULTURELANGUAGEISTHEOUTCOMEOFTHESOCIALDEVELOPMENT,ANDITALSOREFLECTSTHESOCIETYWITHTHEDEVELOPMENTOFTHEHISTORY,WEHAVESEENALOTOFCHANGESABOUTLANGUAGETABOOANDEUPHEMISMARETHEIMPORTANTFORMSINOURSOCIETYANDTHEYALSOPLAYANIMPORTANTROLEININTERPERSONALINTER
4、ACTIONWITHTHEDEVELOPMENTOFTHECIVILIZATION,TABOOANDEUPHEMISMHAVEALSOAFFECTEDANDENRICHEDTHECULTUREBECAUSEOFTHEBACKWARDNESSOFRELIGIONS,SUPERSTITIONS,ETIQUETTES,ANDTECHNOLOGIES,APARTOFTHELANGUAGEISNOTALLOWEDTOUSE,INTHESAMETIME,SOMEOTHERWORDSCAMEUPANDREPLACEDTHESEWORDSWHICHARENOTALLOWEDTOBEUSEDTHEN,TABOO
5、ANDEUPHEMISMARECREATEDINOURDAILYLIFEKEYWORDSTABOO，EUPHEMISM，LANGUAGE,CULTURE,COMPARISON3CONTENTSABSTRACT1INTRODUCTION102ORIGINANDDEFINITIONOFTABOOANDEUPHEMISM1021ORIGINANDDEFINITIONOFTABOO1022ORIGINANDDEFINITIONOFEUPHEMISM1123SAMPLEANALYSIS113FEATUREOFEUPHEMISMANDTABOOINCHINESEANDENGLISH1231THELANGU
6、AGEFEATURESOFEUPHEMISM12311NATIONALITY12312LOCALITY12313RELEVANCE12314INDIRECTIONANDRELATIVITY13315FUZZINESS13316HUMOR1332THELANGUAGEFEATURESOFTABOO14321UNIVERSALITY14322NATIONALITY14323RELEVANCE14324DESCRIPTION15325CLASSNATURE15326IMPLICITNESS154THREEFORMATIONSOFEUPHEMISMANDTABOO1541FORMATIONOFTABO
7、O16411PROFANITIES16412OBSCENITIES16413VULGARITIES17414SENSITIVETOPICS1742PRINCIPLESOFTHEFORMATIONOFEUPHEMISM17421REMOTENESS17422PLEASANTNESS184423RELATEDNESS185THEDIFFERENCEINTABOOANDEUPHEMISMBETWEENCHINESEANDENGLISH1951BACKGROUNDOFCHINAANDWESTERNCOUNTRIES1952THEAPPLICATIONANDCOMPARISONBETWEENCHINES
8、EANDENGLISHINTABOOANDEUPHEMISM2053THEDIFFERENCEBETWEENCHINESEANDENGLISHINTABOOANDEUPHEMISM21531THETABOOANDEUPHEMISMINRELIGION21532THETABOOANDEUPHEMISMINSENSEOFGRADE22533THETABOOANDEUPHEMISMINETIQUETTE226CONCLUSIONS237BIBLIOGRAPHIES248ACKNOWLEDGMENTS2551INTRODUCTIONLANGUAGE,ASATOOLOFCOMMUNICATION,THR
9、OUGHTHECRUCIALROLETHATLANGUAGEPLAYSINTHEORGANIZATIONOFSOCIALGROUP,HASASTRONGCONNECTIONWITHCULTUREANDSOCIETYTABOOANDEUPHEMISM,BEINGPARTOFTHELANGUAGE,HAVEALONGHISTORYINCHINESEANDENGLISHHOWEVER,THEIRCREATIONHASTHEIRUNIQUEREASONS,ANDTHEIRUSAGE,SCOPEOFAPPLICATIONAREALSODIFFERENT2ORIGINANDDEFINITIONOFTABO
10、OANDEUPHEMISM21ORIGINANDDEFINITIONOFTABOOTHETERMTABOOISOFPOLYNESIANORIGIN“TABU”ONTONGANARCHIPELAGOESITORIGINALLYREFERSTOTHOSEHOLYFACTSOROBJECTSWHICHCANNOTBESPOKENORTOUCHEDANDFIRSTNOTEDBYCAPTAINJAMESCOOK,ABRITISHSAILORTHEREISALSOASTORYDURINGCOOKSVISITTOTONGANIN1771,WHENHECAMETOTHEISLANDINSOUTHPACIFIC
11、,HEFOUNDMANYSTRANGEPHENOMENAFOREXAMPLE,SOMEOBJECTSCANONLYBEUSEDBYTHEIRLEADERSORBYTHEGOD,BUTSOMECANONLYBEUSEDBYCOMMONPEOPLE,ANDSOMEOBJECTSCANONLYBEUSEDFORSPECIALPURPOSE,BUTSOMEONLYFORGENERALUSETHELOCALPEOPLECALLEDTHESEPHENOMENA“TABU”,WHICHMEANS“TOBEHOLYANDUNTOUCHABLE”COOKINTRODUCEDTHISTERMINTOTHEENGL
12、ISHLANGUAGE,ANDSPELLEDITAS“TABOO”INENGLISHTABOOHASHIGHLYDEVELOPEDINPOLYNESIANSOCIETYOFSOUTHPACIFIC,BUTTHEYEMERGEDFROMTHEMANYCULTURES,BOTHINCHINESEANDENGLISHTHEREFORE,THEWORD“TABOO”,ASASPECIALNOUNFORTHISKINDOFSPECIALPHENOMENON,WASBROUGHTTOSOCIOLOGYANDANTHROPOLOGYITISINTERPRETEDASONEWAYINWHICHASOCIETY
13、EXPRESSEDITSDISAPPROVALOFCERTAINKINDSOFBEHAVIORWHICHARECONSIDEREDHARMFULTOSOMEONEEITHERFORSUPERNATURALREASONSORSUCHBEHAVIORTHATWILLVIOLATEAMORALCODETHEREISNOGENERALLYACCEPTEDEXPLANATIONOFTABOOUNTILLNOW,BUTTHEREISBROADAGREEMENTTHATTHETABOOSCURRENTINANYSOCIETYTENDTOBECOMEPROHIBITIONS,EXCLUDINGSOMETHIN
14、GFROMUSE,APPROACH,ORMENTIONBECAUSEOFTHEIRSACREDANDINVIOLABLENATURE,ORBANSORINHIBITIONRESULTINGFROMSOCIALCUSTOMOREMOTIONALAVERSIONTHEREARETWOASPECTSOFTABOOONEISTHEOBJECTS,WHICHSHOULDBERESPECTED,BUTCANNOTBEUSEDFREELYTHEOTHERISOBJECTS,WHICHCANNOTBETOUCHEDFREELYINABROADERSENSE,TABOOEXISTSINALLKNOWNCULTU
15、RES,REFERRINGTOCERTAINACTS,OBJECTSORRELATIONSHIPWHICHTHESOCIETYWISHESTOAVOIDANDTHELANGUAGEUSEDTOTALKABOUTTHEMINOTHERWORDS,TABOOCONSISTSOFBEHAVIORALTABOOANDVERBALTABOOGENERALLYSPEAKING,BEHAVIORALTABOOCAUSEDVERBALTABOOVERBALTABOOINDICATES“ATOTALORPARTIALPROHIBITIONOFTHEUSEOFCERTAINWORDS,EXPRESSIONANDT
16、OPICSINSOCIALINTERACTION”22ORIGINANDDEFINITIONOFEUPHEMISMTHEWORD“EUPHEMISM”WASDERIVEDFROMTHEGREEKWORD“EUPHEMISMOS”,WHICHMEANS“FAIRSPEECH”THEPREFIX“EU”MEANS“GOOD,SOUNDWELL”AND“PHEME”MEANS“SAYING”OR“SPEECH”6ANDTHUSTHELITERALMEANINGOF“EUPHEMISM”IS“TOSPEAKWITHGOODWORDSORINAPLEASANTMANNER”THATISTOSAY,EUP
17、HEMISMISUSEDASANALTERNATIVETOUNPLEASANTEXPRESSION,INORDERTOAVOIDPOSSIBLYLOSINGSOMEONESFACE,ORONESOWNFACE,ORTHROUGHGOINGOFFENSE,THATOFTHEAUDIENCE,ORSOMEOFTHIRDOFPARTYTHISUNPLEASANTEXPRESSIONMAYBETABOOED,FEARSOME,ORFORSOMEOTHERREASONSTHATSPEAKERSCANTORINTENDNOTTOUSESOMECERTAINEXPRESSIONDIRECTLYONSOMEO
18、CCASION“INWEBSTERSENCYCLOPEDICUNABRIDGEDDICTIONARYOFTHEENGLISHLANGUAGEISTHESUBSTITUTIONOFAMILD,INDIRECT,ORVAGUEEXPRESSIONFORONETHOUGHTSUBSTITUTEDRAWSONBLUNT,ABRITISHWRITER,DEFINEDEUPHEMISMASAGOODFAVORABLEINTERPRETATIONOFABADWORD”“ENCYCLOPEDIABRITANNICA1994ALSODEFINESEUPHEMISMASAFIGUREOFSPEECHINWHICH
19、SOMETHINGOFANUNPLEASANT,DISTRESSINGORINDELICATENATUREISDESCRIBEDINLESSOFFENSIVETERMS”23SAMPLEANALYSISFORTHEENGLISHLEARNER,UNDERSTANDINGTHETABOOANDEUPHEMISMISVERYIMPORTANTTHEREARESOMEEXAMPLESBOTHINCHINESEANDENGLISHINCHINESE,ESPECIALLYINSEX,CHINESELANGUAGEHASBEENAFFECTEDBYTHEFEUDALISMFORALONGTIMEPEOPL
20、EINCHINAARENOTALLOWEDTOSAYSOMEWORDSINEXCRETIONFOREXAMPLE,PEOPLEAREAVOIDEDTOTALKABOUTDEFECATIONWHENHAVETHEIRDINNERCHINESEPEOPLEDONOTSAY“SOMEBODYISDEAD”,THEYALWAYSUSETHEWORDSJUSTLIKE“SOMEBODYHASGONEORSOMEBODYISTOOOLD”INENGLISH,PEOPLEALSODONOTUSETHEWORDS“CANCER”,THEYCALLIT“THEBIGC”OR“LONGILLNESS”,BUTIN
21、CHINESE,PEOPLESAYTHEILLNESSCANNOTTOBECUREDINENGLISH,PEOPLEALSOUSESOMESENTENCESTOREPLACETHEWORD“MENSTRUATION”,JUSTLIKE“IMHAVINGMYPERIODS”,“IMAWOMANFORAWEEK”,OR“IMHAVINGAFRIENDWITHME”,BUTINCHINESE,WEUSE“IMNOTCOMFORTABLE”,“OFFICIALHOLIDAY”ITISAVERYCOMMONPHYSICALPHENOMENONFORWOMENTOBEPREGNANT,BUTINMIDDL
22、EAGEOFASCETICISM,“BEINGPREGNANT”WASREGARDEDASANINELEGANTTHING,ANDITISUNPLEASANTEVENTOSPEAKOFTHISWORDTHEFOLLOWINGARESOMEEUPHEMISTICEXPRESSIONSABOUTITSHEHASCANCELLEDALLHERSOCIALENGAGEMENTSSHEISINANINTERESTINGCONDITIONSHEISINADELICATECONDITION3FEATURESOFEUPHEMISMANDTABOO31THELANGUAGEFEATURESOFEUPHEMISM
23、311NATIONALITYEUPHEMISMISTHECOMMONLANGUAGEPHENOMENONINTHECULTUREOFTHEWORLDHOWEVERDIFFERENTCOUNTRIESANDDIFFERENTNATIONSHAVETHEIRDIFFERENTNATURALENVIRONMENTS,SOCIALENVIRONMENTS,MODESOFPRODUCTION,LIFESTYLESANDCULTURESEUPHEMISMISDIFFERENTANDWE7CALLTHISDIFFERENCE“NATIONALITY”LOOKATTHISPASSAGEIUSEDTOTHINK
24、IWASPOOR,ANDTHENTHEYTOLDMEIWASNOTPOOR,IWASNEEDY,ANDTHENTHEYSAIDITWASSELFDEFEATINGTOTHINKOFMYSELFASNEEDY,THATIWASCULTURALLYDEPRIVEDTHENTHEYTOLDMEDEPRIVEDISABADIMAGE,THATIWASUNDERPRIVILEGED,THENTHEYTOLDMETHATUNDERPRIVILEGEDWASOVERUSED,THATIWASDISADVANTAGED,ISTILLDONOTHAVEADIMEBUTIHAVEAGREATVOCABULARY”
25、THISPASSAGEUSESFOUREUPHEMISMSINSTEADFOR“POOR”,THEYARE“NEEDY”“CULTURALLYDEPRIVED”,“UNDERPRIVILEGED”,“DISADVANTAGE”ITUSESTHESEFOURWORDSTOEXPRESSTHEIRDIFFERENTUNDERSTANDINGABOUTPOOR312LOCALITYDIFFERENTSOCIALMODESHAVELEDTODIFFERENTEUPHEMISMSJUSTLIKEBREADISTHEUSUALFOODFORBRITISH,THEYUSE“TAKEBREADOUTOFSOM
26、EONESMOUTH”TOMEAN“DEPRIVESOMEBODYSJOB”ANOTHEREXAMPLE“UMBLE”AND“NUMBLES”COMPOSETHEWORD”HUMBLE”“UMBLE”AND“NUMBLES”ARETHEPIEMADEBYTHEDEERSINTERNALORGANS,THEYARELOWFOODTHENTHEWORD“HUMBLE”MEANS“UNPRETENTIOUS,DEFERENTIALORSERVILE”313RELEVANCETHECHANGEOFLANGUAGEISDETERMINEDBYTHEDEVELOPMENTOFSOCIETYONTHEPOI
27、NTOFTHEHISTORY,LANGUAGEISCHANGINGALLTHETIME,NEWWORDSAREPRODUCEDATANYTIMEANDOLDWORDSFADEAWAYEUPHEMISMISUNEXCEPTIONALFOREXAMPLE,LONGTIMEAGO,PEOPLECALLEDBLACKPEOPLE“NEGRO”,THEN“BLACKPEOPLE”,ANDNOW“AFRICANAMERICAN”THISISTHERESULTOFAMERICANHUMANRIGHT314INDIRECTIONANDRELATIVITYTHELITERALMEANINGOF“EUPHEMIS
28、M”IS“TOSPEAKWITHGOODWORDSORINAPLEASANTMANNER”THATISTOSAY,EUPHEMISMISUSEDASANALTERNATIVETOUNPLEASANTEXPRESSION,INORDERTOAVOIDPOSSIBLYLOSINGOFFACE,EITHERONESOWNFACEORTHROUGHGOINGOFFENSE,ORSOMEOFTHIRDOFPARTYSOTHEINDIRECTIONISTHECHARACTERISTICOFTHEEUPHEMISMANDRELATIVITYMEANSWHENPEOPLESAYAWORD,ITCANHELPP
29、EOPLETOASSOCIATETHETHINGSTHEYREFERTOLIKE“DONTYOUTHINKMYCOOKINGISWONDERFUL”THEGIRLASKED“AREYOUFISHINGFORCOMPLIMENTS”HERBOYFRIENDRESPONDEDTHISCONVERSATIONISIMPLICATIVE,BOYDOESNOTONLYRESPONDTOHISGIRLFRIENDSQUESTION,BUTALSOAVOIDEMBARRASSMENT315FUZZINESSMANYEUPHEMISMSMAKEUSEOFTHEFUZZINESSOFLANGUAGEANDBRO
30、ADTHEMEANINGSINORDERTO8COVERUPSOMECRUELREALITIES,PEOPLEALWAYSUSESOMEINACCURATEWORDSTOEXPRESSTHEMOREACCURATEWORDSA“ISTHEPAINWORSE”B“ITSNOGREATPAIN,SIR,IHAVEBEENTOONESPECIALIST,SIRYESTERDAY,ANDITSTHAT,SIRA“HECOULDNTBESUREANOPERATIONB“TOOLATE,HESAID,FORTHATIFIHADBEENOPERATEDONLONGAGOTHEREMIGHTHAVEBEENA
31、CHANCE”WHENWEFINISHEDTHISCONVERSATION,WECANNOTFIGUREOUTWHAT“IT”AND“THAT”AREACTUALLY,AANDBTALKEDABOUTTHECANCERBECAUSEPEOPLEAREALLTERRIFIEDBYCANCERAANDBUSE“IT”AND“THAT”TOREPLACE“CANCER”ANDCOVERUPTHECRUELREALITY316HUMOROURCONVERSATIONWILLBEFULLOFWITANDHUMORBYUSINGEUPHEMISM,ANDSOMECRUELREALITIESCANBECOV
32、EREDBYUSINGEUPHEMISMTOOFOREXAMPLE,“BATTLEOFBULGE”DESCRIBESTHATWOMENFIGHTAGAINSTTHEIRWEIGHTAFTERWORLDWARTWO,INORDERTOKEEPAGOODFIGURE,THEYASSIMILATETHEIRBEHAVIORLIKELOSINGWEIGHTTOABATTLE,ANDITHUMOROUSLYINDICATESTHEIRDETERMINATIONANDPERSEVERANCEABOUTLOSINGTHEIRWEIGHTANOTHEREXAMPLE,INCHINESE,IFTHEWIFEHA
33、SMORERIGHTSTHANHERHUSBANDINFAMILY,WEALWAYSCALLTHEHUSBAND“QIGUANYAN”,ITSPRONUNCIATIONISSIMILARTOTHEPRONUNCIATION“TRACHEITIS”INCHINESEINENGLISH,WECALLTHESEHUSBANDS“HENPECKEDHUSBAND”,ITMEANSTHESEHUSBANDSAREPECKEDBYHEN32THELANGUAGEFEATURESOFTABOO321UNIVERSALITYTABOOEXISTSINALLCULTURESLANGUAGE,LIFE,RELIG
34、IOUSANDSOONFROMFOOD,CLOTHING,SHELTERANDTRANSPORTATIONTOTHEPOLITICS,DIPLOMACY,ECONOMYANDCULTUREACTIVITYOFSOCIETY,ITISINVOLVEDWITHALOTOFTHINGSINARUDETRIBEORINACIVILIZEDSOCIETY,INCHINAORINWESTERNCOUNTRIES,TABOOEXISTSALLTHETIMEALLTHELANGUAGESINTHEWORLD,INCLUDINGTHEMAJORITYLANGUAGEORTHEMINORITYLANGUAGE,H
35、AVETHEIROWNTABOOSTHEUNIVERSALITYOFTABOODERIVESFROMDIFFERENTNATIONSDIFFERENTCULTURALVALUESWHICHGIVETHEMEMBERSARULETOJUDGEWHATISRIGHTORWRONG,IFTHEYTHINKTHATONETHINGSHOULDBEAVOIDED,THEYWILLNOTTALKABOUTIT322NATIONALITYNATIONALITYCANALSOBEREGARDEDASPARTICULARITY,THEDEVELOPMENTOFDIFFERENTNATIONSFORMTHEUNI
36、QUEFEATURESOFTHEIRLANGUAGES,ANATIONSCULTURECANBEREFLECTEDBYTHENATIONS9LANGUAGE,TABOOISUNEXCEPTIONAL,ANDEVERYTABOOHASALONGSTORYBECAUSEOFTHENATIONALITY,DIFFERENTNATIONSHAVEDIFFERENTIDEASABOUTTHESAMEPHENOMENONBECAUSEOFTHEDIFFERENCEBETWEENCHINAANDWESTERNCOUNTRIESINHISTORY,SOCIALSYSTEM,VALUES,MODEOFLIFEA
37、NDSOON,THETABOOISDIFFERENTTOOINMEANINGANDFORMTHEREAREMANYTABOOSABOUTRELIGION,CRIMINAL,ALCOHOLISM,FEMININELIBERATIONINENGLISHSOMEINTIMATEQUESTIONSAREAVOIDEDTOBEDISCUSSEDHOWEVER,INCHINA,WECAREMUCHABOUTTHEADDRESSESOFTHEOLDERANDYOUNGER323RELEVANCELANGUAGEISFLEXIBLEWECANFINDCHANGESALLTHETIMETHEDEVELOPMEN
38、TOFLANGUAGEISDETERMINEDBYTHEDEVELOPMENTOFSOCIETYONTHEPOINTOFTHEHISTORY,ALOTOFTABOOSAREELIMINATEDWITHTHEDEVELOPMENTOFCIVILIZATION,THENUMBERSOFTABOOSAREDECREASEDINTHESEYEARS,LOTSOFTABOOSAREUSEDPUBLICLYINOURDAILYLIFEANDAPPEAREDINTHEDICTIONARY,BUTHUMANBEINGSDONOTCOGNIZETHENATURE,WORLDANDUSTOTALLY,TABOOW
39、ILLEXISTINTHEWORLDFORLONGTIME324DESCRIPTIONTHEDEVELOPMENTOFEVERYTHINGHASAPROCESS,FROMONESTAGETOANOTHERSTAGE,LANGUAGEANDCULTUREAREALSOHAVETHISPROCESSATEVERYSTAGEOFSOCIALDEVELOPMENT,PEOPLEDONOTTHROWTHEIRORIGINALFOUNDATIONANDCONDITIONAWAY,THEYINHERITEDPREDECESSORSOUTCOMEANDCREATEDORDEVELOPEDTHEMSOMETAB
40、OOSARERESERVEDFORTHOUSANDSOFYEARSPEOPLEWEREINFLUENCEDBYWHATONECONSTANTLYSEESANDHEARSSOTHESETABOOSWEREINHERITEDANDHANDEDDOWNTHEGENERATIONBYGENERATIONFOREXAMPLE,“DEATH”,CHINAORWESTERNCOUNTRIES,WEALWAYSUSESOMEMILDWORDSJUSTLIKE“PASSAWAY”,“PASSOUT”,“GOTOHEAVEN”,THESEWORDSARETHEREFLECTIONOFDESCRIPTIONOFTA
41、BOO325CLASSNATUREINTHECLASSSOCIETY,INORDERTOVINDICATETHEIRBENEFITS,GOVERNINGCLASSUSETHEEUPHEMISMTOCOVERUPTHEIRCRIMESANDPRETTIFYTHEMINSOMECOUNTRIES,MEDIA,NEWSPAPERS,MAGAZINES,RADIOSANDTVSTATIONSUSEDTHEEUPHEMISMWHICHHASFIERYPOLITICALRHETORICFOREXAMPLE,“AGGRESSIVEWAR”ISUSUALLYTRANSFERREDTO“INTERNATIONA
42、LARMEDCONFLICT”“ELECTRICCHAIR”ISTRANSFERREDTO“HOTSEAT”ANDPEOPLEWHOSELEVELOFLIFEWASLOWERTHANTHEPOVERTYLINEARECALLED“THEDISADVANTAGE”THEREAREALSOTENSOFTHOUSANDSOFWORDSINVOLVINGINMILITARY,POLITICSANDDIPLOMACY326IMPLICITNESSINTHECROSSCULTURALCOMMUNICATION,IMPLICITNESSISTHEMOSTOBVIOUSFEATURESTHISFEATURES
43、10MEANSPEOPLEDONOTMAKEAREALORDIRECTJUDGMENTONONEOBJECTORAPHENOMENONINSTEAD,THEYALWAYSUSETHEREPLACED,ABSTRACT,AMBIGUOUSCONCEPTORMETAPHOR,AMELIORATIONTODESCRIBE,EVENUSECONTRARYMEANINGTOJUDGESOTHATSPEAKERSCANAVOIDTALKINGABOUTSOMESENSITIVETOPICSIMPLICITNESSISTHECOMMONLANGUAGEFEATUREINTABOOANDEUPHEMISMTH
44、EREFORE,SOMETIMESTABOOANDEUPHEMISMAREDIFFICULTTODISTINGUISHTABOOHASALLKINDSOFCONNECTIONSWITHEUPHEMISM4THREEFORMATIONSOFEUPHEMISMANDTABOO41FORMATIONOFTABOOINEVERYCULTURE,THERESEEMTOBECERTAINUNMENTIONABLEWORDSANDTOPICSTHATSHOULDNTBEBROUGHTUPORPUTSTRAIGHTFORWARDASARESULTOFRELIGIONORCUSTOMTABOOSARETHOSE
45、OFSTRONGAFFECTIVECONNOTATION,THEYCANNOTBEUSEDINPOLITEDISCOURSEINENGLISH,TABOOWORDS,ROUGHLYSPEAKING,FALLINTOFOURTYPES,NAMELYPROFANITIES,OBSCENITIES,VULGARITIESANDSENSITIVETOPICS411PROFANITIESPROFANITIES,BYTHENAME,ARETHEWORDORACTSSHOWINGCONTEMPTFORTHENAMEOFGODORHOLYTHINGSINTHEWEST,MOSTPEOPLEARERELIGIO
46、USSOTHATTHEYREGARDTHENAMEOFGODASFORBIDDENSUBJECTANDDONOTALLOWANYONETOMENTIONITEXCEPTONSOMERAREOCCASIONSFORTHISREASON,MANYJEWSMANAGETOAVOIDMENTIONING“GOD”ANDJEWISHSTUDENTSDISTORT“GODOFMEDICINE”INTO“GDOFMEDICINE”EVENINTHEBIBLE,THEREISONERULEFROMTHETENCOMMANDMENTS“THOUSHALTNOTTAKETHENAMEOFTHELORDTHYGOD
47、INVAINFORTHELORDWILLNOTHOLDHIMGUILTLESSTHATTAKEHISNAMEINVAIN”HOLYBIBLE,EXODUS207INADDITION,THENAMEOFTHEDEVILISNOTALLOWEDTOSPEAKOFFORPEOPLEBELIEVETHATHEISSURETOAPPEARIFHISNAMEISSPOKENOFTHEREFORE,“THEDEVIL”ISREPLACEDBYTHEDEUCE,THEDICKENS,OLDNICK,ECT412OBSCENITIESOBSCENITIESAREANOTHERKINDOFTABOOWORDS,W
48、HICHMAINLYCONCERNABOUTTHESEXUALORGANSANDARTS,ANDSOMEOTHERPARTOFTHEHUMANBODY,SUCHASSCREW,BALLS,PRICK,ARSE,FART,CUNT,ECTACTUALLYOBSCENITIESARETABOOEDINANYHUMANLANGUAGEANDCULTURETHEEDUCATEDREFUSETOUSETHEMWECANENCOUNTERTHISKINDOFTABOOSINCOLLOQUIALENGLISHFORTHEPURPOSEOFCURSEOREMPHASISTHEYAREMORESTRICTLYP
49、ROHIBITEDTHANPROFANITIESBECAUSETHEYOFFENDTHEMORALETHICS,FOREXAMPLE11FUCKYOUBUGGEROFFHEISASTUPIDPRICKINTHESERIOUSLITERARYBOOKSORMAGAZINESTHOSEEXPRESSIONSCANNEVERGETANYCHANCETOAPPEARANDAREREPLACEDBYTHEIREUPHEMISMSFOREXAMPLE“DENIS,IDOLOVEYOUILLNEVERFELTLIKETHISDONTTREMBLESOYOURENOTFRIGHTENED,AREYOUDENIS,TELLMEHOWMANYGIRLSHAVEYOUHAD”HEWITHDREWHISLIPSFROMHERCHECKBUTDIDNOTOTHERWISEMOVE“HOWHOWMANYDOYOUMEAN”“HOWMANYGIRLSHAVEYOUMADELOVETO,BEENTOBEDWITH”“NONE”THEUNICORN,IRISMURDOCHINTHISDISCOURSE,ITISEASYFORLISTENERTOUNDERSTANDTHAT“TOMAKELOVETO”AND“TOGOTOBEDWITH”SIMPL
