1、外文翻译 原文 Author: Jan H. Schumann The Impact of Culture on Relationship Marketing in International Services A Target Group-Specific Analysis in the Context of Banking Services 3.1 Definition and Conceptualization of Culture Although culture is a relevant concept for service marketing,it is simultaneou
2、sly “ the most abstract construct affecting human behavior “ (McCort and Malhotra 1993, p. 92).Numerous definitions of culture exist(see Table 3.1). Perhaps the most encompassing analysis on culture definitions is that provided by Kroeber and Kluckhohn(1985), who reviewed and analyzed more than 160
3、different definitions. Youngdahl et al. (2003) summarize the essence of thesevarious options in the following definition: Culture consists of patterns,explicit and implicit,of and for behavior. That is, it gives members of the culture both the script for behavior and the reasoningbehind it. It is ac
4、quired and transmitted by symbols and embodied in artefacts.The essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and especially their attached values. Culture systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of actions, on the other,as conditioning elements of future action(Youngdahl e
5、t al.2003, p. 111). According to an often cited definition by Hofstede(1980,p.21),culture also is“ the collective programming of the mind,which distinguishes the members of one group from another. “ Hill(1997, p. 67)finally defines culture as “ a system of values and norms that are shared among a gr
6、oup of people and that when taken together constitute a design for living. “ These definitions incorporate three aspects that are relevant in the context of this research.First,most definitions and research streams agree that culture is a phenomenon that is shared among a group of people.This shared
7、ness distinguishes culture from individual phenomena(McCort and Malhotra 1993).Yet culture does not automatically correspond to country borders or ethnic groups(Steenkamp 2001);rather,it refers to any form of social environment that shares common values.Hofstede(2001)similarly argues that layers of
8、culture exist,including national,regional,or ethnic,religious, and linguistic levels,as well as potentially gender,generational,and social class levels. Second,culture is manifest in shared beliefs or values.Culture is invisible unless the related values appear in the form of behavior or practices(H
9、ofstede 2001). Hofstede (2001)further argues that there are three visible elements that cover the core of culture, like layers of onions:symbols,heroes,and rituals(see Figure 3.1).Symbols are words, gestures,pictures,and objects that often carry complexmeanings and can be recognized and understood o
10、nly by members of the sameculture.Heroes are persons who possess characteristics that are highly praised inthe culture and therefore serve as role models for others behavior.These personsmay either be alive or dead,real or imaginary. Finally,rituals are collective activities within a culture that ar
11、e not performed to achieve desired ends but instead are considered socially essential,with the function of keeping an individual bound within the norms of the collective.According to Hofstede(2001), the core of culture consists of values though.Erez and Earley(1993,p.43)support this view and argue t
12、hat culture consists of“the core values and beliefs of individuals within a society formed in complex knowledge systems during childhood and reinforced throughout life.“ Third,culture influences people s cognitions through these shared cultural values.Cross-cultural research shows that shared cultur
13、al values lead to shared behavioral patterns,because they similarly influence the underlying cognitive constructs(Triandis 1972)and cognitive processing(McCort and Malhotra 1993)of people in a culture or subculture. What all definitions of culture thus have in common is that they highlight the all e
14、ncompassing and pervasive nature of culture.This encompassing influence of culture implies that it is not limited to certain aspects of human behavior.Accordingly,Mc-Cort and Malhotra(1993,p.120)state that“culture impacts virtually every construct of concern to marketers.“Soares,Farhangmehr,and Shoh
15、am(2007)highlight that the all encompassing nature makes it challenging to differentiate cultural factors strictly fromother macro-level influences,such as the economic,political,legal,religious,lingustic,educational,technological,or industrial environment surrounding and influencing the people in a
16、 culture.As Sekaran(1983,p.68)notes,“culturally normed behavior and patterns of socialization could often stem from a mix of religious beliefs,economic and political exigencies and so on.Sorting these out in a clear-cut fashion would be extremely difficult,if not totally impossible.“ 3.2.5 The Role
17、of Cultural Values Dimensional approaches and their underlying functionalist paradigm may be reductionist and too simplistic,such that they fail to capture all facets of culture(Briley,Morris, and Simonson 2000;Keillor and Hult 1999).Despite this criticism though,the benefits of this approach have l
18、ed to a widespread acceptance of dimensional approaches that use cultural values to characterize and differentiate cultures in cross-cultural marketing research(Clark 1990;Steenkamp 2001;van de Vijver and Leung 1997).Cross-cultural researchers do not doubt the relevance of qualitative analyses,and t
19、hey acknowledge that culture is complex and encompassing(Baggozi and Baumgartner 1994;Steenkamp 2001).Yet,according to Samiee and Jeong(1994,p.215)“differences in dependent variables should not be attributed to differences in culture unless components of culture have been identified.Likewise,group m
20、ean differences are much more meaningful when the investigator articulates why they should exist.“Hence,to allow for meaningful cross-cultural research,the ultimate goal of cross-cultural researchers is to find a limited set of dimensions that captures the most prominent differences,integrates multi
21、ple features,and relates meaningfully to socio-historical variables“(Schwartz 1995,p.118).Smith,Dugan,and Trompenaars(1996)support this view and argue that valid frameworks of national cultural values are needed to create a nomological framework of culture that integrates diverse attitudinal and beh
22、avioral phenomena and can develop hypothesis regarding the systematic variations of countries in terms of their attitudes and behavior. Hofstede(1980;2001)further argues that the use of a limited number of dimensions to compare cultures has roots in anthropology.That is,scholars in this field posit
23、that cultural diversity results when different cultures find different answers to similar universal questions,such as“the existence of two sexes;the helplessness of infants;the need for satisfaction of the elementary biological requirements such as food,warmth and sex; the presence of individuals of
24、 different ages and of different physical and other capacities“Kluckhohn in Hofstede(1984,p.36).Academics from different disciplines also propose different frameworks for cultural value systems(Hofstede 1980;2001;House et al.2004;Javidan et al.2006;Schwartz 1992;1994),predominantly reflecting organi
25、zational and sociological research origins.Cross-cultural marketing research also employs these frameworks,yet thus far,no theory of culture originates from international marketing research(Steenkamp 2001).The most widely applied and accepted framework of cultural values is the cultural dimensions f
26、ramework by Hofstede(1980;2001). 翻译 作者： Jan H. Schumann 国际业务关系营销中文化因素的影响 目标群体，在银行服务中具体分析 班级：工商 072 姓名：王维 学号： 07010852 3.1 文化的定义和概念化 虽然文化是服务营销的相关概念，而且它同时也是“建设的最具抽象的人类的行为的影响”（ McCort 和马尔霍特拉 1993 年，第 92 页）。文化的定义存在许多（见表 3.1）。也许，最完整的对文化的定义的分析是由克鲁伯和 Kluckhohn（ 1985），他们回顾和分析 160 多个不同的定义。扬达尔等人（ 2003 年）总结了以下
27、的定义，从不同的选项的本 质来定义。 文化具有图案，显性和隐性的行为。也就是说，它是给双方的文化脚本的行为及其背后的推理的成员。这是获取和传播的符号和文物的体现。文化的基本核心由传统的观念，尤其是其附加价值组成。文化系统可能，一方面，被视为产品的行动，另一方面，作为今后行动的空调元素（扬达尔等人 .2003，第 111 页）。 根据一项由霍夫斯泰德经常提到的定义（ 1980 年，第 21 页），文化也就是“心灵，有别于另外一组成员的集体节目。”希尔（ 1997 年，第 67 页）最后定义为“文化的价值观和规范是一群人在一个共享的系统，而且加在一起构成了生活的设计。” 这些定义包括三个方面是与这
28、个研究的有关的方面。首先，大部分定义和研究流同意，文化是一种现象，是一种有其中一组人共享而产生的。这里德共享区别于个别现象的文化（ McCort 和马尔霍特拉 1993）。然而，文化并不自动对应国家边界或族群，而是指任何形式的社会环境，这股共同的价值观（ Steenkamp 2001）。霍夫斯塔德（ 2001）同样认为，存在的文化层，包括国家，地区或种族，宗教，和语言水平，同样的在的性别，世代，社会阶层也有等级。 其次，文化是共同的信仰和价值观的体现。文化是无形的，除非 相关值在行为或做法（霍夫斯泰德 2001 年）的形式出现。霍夫斯泰德（ 2001 年）进一步认为涵盖文化的核心层有三个，就像
29、洋葱一样一层层：符号，英雄，仪式（见图3.1）。符号是文字，手势，图片和对象经常携带复杂的含义，可确认，只有同文化的成员理解。英雄是拥有高度赞扬的人的一种文化，因此，具有充当别人的行为榜样的特点。这些人可以是活着还是死了的，真实的或虚构的。最后，仪式是在一个无需执行，却以达到预期目的，而被视为社会基本保持与集体内的个人的规范约束的功能，是文化的一种集体活动。根据霍夫斯泰德（ 2001 年）文化的核 心价值观来看。埃雷兹和阿利（ 1993 年，第 43 页）支持这一观点，认为文化是“在复杂的知识系统内形成个人的核心价值观和信仰，是在于童年的生活和整个社会的加强。” 第三，通过这些共同的文化价值的
30、文化而影响着人们的认识。跨文化研究表明，共同的文化价值观导致共同行为模式，因为它们同样影响到相关的认知结构（ Triandis 1972 年）和认知处理的一种文化或亚文化的人（ McCort 和马尔霍特拉 1993 年）。 不论什么样的文化，其 所有定义的共同点是，他们突出了无所不包以及无处不在的文化的性质。这种文化意味着它包含的影响不仅限于对人类行为的某些方面。因此， Mc-Cort 和马尔霍特拉（ 1993 年，第 120 页）指出，“文化的影响几乎要每一个关注构造来营销。”苏亚雷斯， Farhangmehr 和 Shoham（ 2007）强调指出，全包罗万象的性质使得它具有挑战性的区分严
31、格和其他宏观层面的影响，例如，在一种文化下，文化因素在经济，政治，法律，宗教，英汉语言，教育，技术，或产业包围和影响周围的人。同时 Sekaran（ 1983 年，第 68 页）还指出，“ 文化范行为和社会模式常常可以源于宗教信仰，经济和政治要求等的组合。如果不是完全不可能的，排序这些旗帜鲜明的文化时会有很大的困难，。” 3.2.5 文化价值的作用 三维途径及其基本功能主义范式可还原和过于简单化，这样，他们未能捕捉到文化的各个方面（布赖利，莫里斯，和西蒙斯 2000 凯勒和霍特 1999 年）。尽管这种批评不过，但是这种方法的好处，导致三维途径的文化价值使用的特点和差异在跨文化营销研究方面被广
32、泛接受的文化的这种批评（克拉克 1990 年文化，Steenkamp 2001 年，梁凡代 Vijver 1997 年）。跨文化研究者不怀疑定性分析的相关性，且他们承认，文化是复杂的，包括（ Baggozi 和鲍姆加特纳 1994; Steenkamp2001 年）。然而，根据 Samiee 和郑（ 1994 年，第 215 页）“在相关变量的差异不应归因于文化差异，除非尽头真实姿态组件已被定义 .同样的，集团的平均差异是有意义得多时研究者阐明为什么要存在。然而，根据 Samiee 和郑（ 1994 年，第 215 页）“在相关变量的差异不应归因于文化差异，除非尽头真实姿态组件也已确定。同样，
33、集团的平均差异是有意义的，得在多调查时阐明为什么他们应该 存在。“因此，要允许进行有意义的跨文化研究，跨文化研究的最终目标是找到一种尺寸有限，抓住最突出的分歧，集成了多种功能，并且与有意义的社会历史因素相联系起来”（施瓦茨 1995 年，第 118 页）。史密斯，杜根和 Trompenaars（ 1996）支持这一观点，认为有效的国家文化价值观框架是需要创造一个法理框架，整合各种文化态度和行为的现象，就可以开发假设各国的系统性变化在他们的态度和行为方面。 霍夫斯塔德（ 1980， 2001）进一步指出，一个数量有限的尺寸是来比较文化在人类学的根源。在这一领域的学者，文化多样性假定 结果发现，当
34、不同文化的类似普遍的问题有着不同的答案。如“两性的存在 ;无助的婴儿 ;为诸如食物，温暖和生物性的基本需求满足需要 ;对不同年龄和不同的物理和其他电容关系“ 在霍夫斯泰德的 Kluckhohn（ 1984 年，第 36 页） 。来自不同学科的学者也提出不同框架文化价值系统（霍夫斯泰德 1980 年， 2001 年，众议院等人 .2004; Javidan 等人 .2006;施瓦茨 1992 年 1994 年），主要反映组织和社会学研究的起源。跨文化营销的研究还采用这些框架，但迄今为止，没有文化的理论，从国际市场研究（ Steenkamp 2001）起源。最广泛应用和接受文化价值的文化层面的框架是霍夫斯塔德框架（ 1980;2001 年）。
