1、 外文翻译 原文 Tourism and Socio-economic Development in Developing Countries:A Case Study of Mombasa Resort in Kenya Material Source: Department of Tourism Management, Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya Author: John S. Akama and Damiannah Kieti This paper looks at issues surrounding sustainable tourism as a
2、tool for local socioeconomic development in Kenya, using the case study of Mombasa Resort Town. Illustrated by primary data from field interviews and surveys in Mombasa, backed by secondary data, it finds that due to the nature of the Kenyan tourism industry (external control and management of touri
3、sm establishments, limited local involvement and high leakage rates), the industry has not played an effective role in local socio-economic development.Ways forward are suggested. doi: 10.2167/jost543.0 Keywords: tourism in developing countries, sustainable tourism development, socio-economic develo
4、pment, Kenyan tourism, community tourism Introduction The concept of sustainable tourism strives to harmonise and reconcile issues of intergenerational equity, and the goals of economic growth, environmentalprotection and social justice. It recognises the need for fairness between localindividuals a
5、nd groups, and between hosts and guests (Mbaiwa, 2005). If the concept of sustainable tourism is transformed into action, it is expected to contribute to the sustainability of the environment, social and cultural resources and overall socio-economic development. The increasing popularity of the conc
6、ept derives from the widely held view that there is a need to alter current forms of consumption that perceive existing resources as being infinite. A lot of attention has been paid to the economic and ecological aspects of sustainable development, especially at the national level (Roe Scheyvens, 20
7、02), but little has been given to the analysis of the implications of sustainable tourism on specific local communities and on the industry s impact on the quality of life and on socio-ecological aspects of communities that are directly affected by the tourism industry, particularly in developing co
8、untries such as Kenya. This paper addresses those issues. Tourism development in Kenya Kenya provides a good example of a developing country that has embraced tourism as a tool for socio-economic development. Kenya has increasingly become a popular tourist destination for visitors fromEurope, North
9、America andemerging tourist-generating regions, particularly South-east Asia (Table 1). The country receives over 6% of the total international tourist arrivals to Africa, and the relative importance of tourism in Kenya s economy has risen steadily over the last 40 years (Kenya Government, 2004). Ho
10、wever, to be of any meaning to marginalised local communities and individuals, especially in developing countries such as Kenya, tourism development should be part of a broader alternative policy framework that is designed to achieve a sustainable society. Sustainable tourism development should, the
11、refore, not be seen as an end in itself, but as one of the several alternative development strategies that can assist local communities overcome their socio-economic and developmental weaknesses, preserve their strengths and enhance their developmental opportunities. Table 1 Departing visitors by co
12、untry of residence and purpose of visit, 2000 2001 ( 000) Country of Residence Holiday Business Transit Total 2000 2001 2000 2001 2000 2001 2000 2001 Germany 187.0 179.7 4.4 4.2 24.7 19.0 206.1 202.9 United Kingdom 119.9 115.2 17.3 16.6 11.0 14.3 148.2 146.1 Switzerland 19.9 19.1 2.6 2.5 3.4 4.4 25.
13、9 26.0 Italy 24.6 23.6 2.9 2.8 2.8 3.6 30.3 30.1 France 18.9 18.2 2.7 2.6 3.1 4.0 24.7 24.8 Scandinavia 16.1 15.5 2.2 2.1 2.7 3.5 21.0 21.1 Other Europe 147.6 141.8 3.3 3.2 15.4 20.0 166.5 165.0 Total Europe 534.0 513.1 35.4 34.0 53.1 68.8 622.5 615.9 USA 44.7 43.0 5.1 4.9 4.3 5.6 54.0 53.4 Canada 1
14、4.2 13.6 1.9 1.8 2.2 2.9 18.3 18.3 Total North America 58.9 56.6 7.0 6.7 6.5 8.4 72.3 71.7 Uganda 14.3 13.7 21.2 20.4 4.4 5.7 39.9 39.8 Tanzania 25.2 24.2 5.7 5.5 11.7 15.2 42.6 44.9 Other Africa 30.8 29.6 17.5 16.8 14.3 18.5 62.6 64.9 Total Africa 70.3 67.6 44.4 42.7 30.4 39.4 145.1 149.6 India 12.
15、1 11.6 2.4 2.3 2.3 3.0 16.7 16.6 Japan 10.4 10 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.4 12.8 12.6 Israel 5.9 5.7 0.8 0.8 0.4 0.5 7.2 7.0 Other Asia 12.7 12.2 3.3 3.2 3.0 3.9 29.2 19.3 Total Asia 41.1 39.5 7.7 7.4 6.8 8.8 55.6 55.7 Australia and New Zealand 13.9 13.4 1.7 1.6 1.8 2.3 17.3 17.3 All other countries 54 51.9 0.8
16、0.8 4.9 6.3 59.7 59.0 Total 772.2 742.0 97.0 93.2 103.5 134.1 972.7 969.3 Mombasa is the leading tourist centre in Eastern Africa, with the highest concentration of tourism and hospitality facilities and infrastructure. Mombasa and adjacent townships receive over one third of international tourist a
17、rrivals to Kenya. However,Mombasa in particular, and the Kenyan coastal region in general, is classified by the government as one of the regions with a high incidence of poverty and poor living conditions for local people (Kenya Government, 2004). It has been estimated that over 50% of the residents
18、 of Mombasa live below the poverty line, earning less than US$ 1 per day. In the Kenyan context, the poverty line is the level at which an individual s income does not meet a minimum standard required to meet his or her basic needs such as food, shelter, sanitation and clean water supply (Kenya Gove
19、rnment, 2004: 195). Over half of Mombasa s 500,000 residents cannot afford a decent meal, do not have access to clean water or basic sanitary facilities and can neither afford basic health care nor pay school fees for their children. Often the people living below the poverty line have no regular emp
20、loyment, their income is small and irregular and they lack basic capital to start micro-scale business enterprises in tourism and other sectors. Quite often, the children of people living below the poverty line do not attend school and even when they do, the dropout rate is quite high. Hence, most o
21、f the children rarely go beyond elementary school. The consequences of this abject poverty and social deprivation is reflected in an increased incidence of insecurity, theft, drug-taking and trafficking, prostitution, hunger and malnutrition, high mortality rate, high levels of illiteracy, an increa
22、sed incidence of child labour, domestic violence and family breakups (Kenya Government, 1999a, 1999b). In this regard, it should be asked, if tourism is a main economic sector in Mombasa and other centres in Kenya, what role is the industry playing in the improvement of the living conditions of the
23、local people? Is tourism an appropriate tool for sustainable local socio-economic development? This study addresses some of the critical issues on sustainable tourism development, particularly as it relates to equitable distribution of the tourism benefits to different stakeholders, local participat
24、ion in tourism decisionmaking processes, the leakage rate and multiplier effects of tourism and its marketing. Methodology This research uses a case study of Mombasa and adjacent townships to analyse the role played by tourism as an option for sustainable local community development. It examines tou
25、rist motivations for visiting Mombasa, their responses to the area and sets this study against local residents views of the tourist industry. The study population consisted of: (1) local people living inMombasa and the adjacent area and (2) tourists in the same area. Cluster sampling was applied to
26、select the sampling units (i.e. Kisauni, Likoni and Changamwe) where most local people reside. Convenience sampling techniques were applied to recruit respondents from each sampling unit. Data collection was by a combination of questionnaires, interviews and field observation. Questionnaires and fie
27、ld interviews were administered in locations such as hotels and restaurants, entertainment centres, attraction sites and along the streets and residential areas. In addition, scheduled interviews and structured dialogue was conducted with selected private and public sector representatives, local com
28、munity leaders and politicians. Two types of questionnaires were administered one for local people and the other for tourists. Each questionnaire was divided into three sections. The first section covered general sociodemographic attributes, while the second section addressed overall issues on touri
29、sm development such as existing tourist attractions, forms of interactions between residents and tourists, and the use of local tourism resources and recreational facilities. The last section of the questionnaire probed the role of tourism as a tool for local socio-economic development including exi
30、sting forms of tourism employment, local decisionmaking processes, ownership and management of tourism resources, forms of tourism marketing and the distribution of tourism revenues among various stakeholders. This study was undertaken from June to July 2002. Two hundred and twentyseven internationa
31、l tourists and a similar number of local residents were interviewed. The data collected was organised, tabulated and analysed using computer statistical packages. Research Findings International tourists A summary of findings is given in Table 2. Eighty percent of the international tourists were tra
32、velling under an inclusive tour package. As is usually the characteristic of all-inclusive tour package travel arrangements, most international tourists (87%) stated that they were staying in high-class resort hotels and condominiums (i.e. 3- to 5-star hotels) for a period of 7 21 days. Most of thes
33、e grand tourism and hospitality establishments are under the ownership and management of multinational and foreign investors including Hayes and Javuis, Lonhro Corporation, United Tour companies, Kuoni, Africa Club, Universal Safari Tours, Pollmans, Franco Russo and Grand Viaggi. A significant 53% (
34、Cramer s V = 0.541) of the international tourists stated that it was mainly the unique and diverse wildlife attractions that motivated them to visit Kenya. Eighteen percent listed the country s pleasant weather conditions and 15% listed unique indigenous cultures. It can be argued that these motivat
35、ional attributes derive from and/or are influenced by the marketing strategies used by overseas tour operators, particularly when marketing Third World destinations such as Kenya. Commercials appearing in print and in the electronic media market Kenya as a tourist destination for the Big Five (Eleph
36、ant, Lion, Rhino, Leopard and Buffalo). Little effort is expended in giving meaningful information about Kenya s diverse cultural and nature-based attractions. When asked to name what they liked most on their trip, 40% of the tourists listed the friendly character of the local residents. Other aspec
37、ts that the tourists liked included visiting Fort Jesus (an imposing 17th Century Fort built by Portuguese sailors), the tranquil and pristine tropical beaches and the warm and pleasant weather conditions. Table 2 Interview responses of international tourists Item No. of respondents Percentage (%) R
38、easons for visit (a) Unique cultural attractions 29 15.2 (b) Pristine tropical beaches 26 13.6 (c) Unique wildlife attractions 101 52.9 (d) Pleasant climate 35 18.3 Purpose of the visit (a) Holiday 170 91.9 (b) Visit friends and relatives 6 3.2 (c) Business 3 1.6 (d) Attend conference (e) Study tour
39、 (f) Others 6 3.2 Type of accommodation (a) Five star hotel 34 18.2 (b) Four star hotel 92 49.2 (c) Three star hotel 38 20.3 (d) Two star hotel 18 9.6 (e) Campsite 1 0.5 (f) Guest house 3 1.6 (g) Staying with friends and relatives 1 0.5 (h) Others Trip duration (a) 1 day 3 1.7 (b) 2 3 days 17 9.4 (c
40、) 4 7 days 40 22.2 (d) 8 14 days 98 54.4 (e) 15 21 days 16 8.9 (f) 22 days or more 6 3.3 Mode of travel (a) An inclusive tour package 145 80.1 (b) Individual travel arrangements 36 19.9 Services in packaged tour (a) Return ticket 142 29.3 (b) Accommodation 132 27.2 (c) Car rental 1 0.2 (d) Meals at
41、restaurants 127 26.2 (e) Tickets for park entry, museum 33 6.8 and other attractions 50 10.3 (f) Local tour (transportation) (g) Others It is, therefore, interesting to note that although initially most of the international tourists had indicated that they had decided to visit Kenya because of wildl
42、ife attractions, they mainly listed social and cultural attributes (i.e. the friendliness of the local residents and visiting Fort Jesus) as the trip attributes that they liked most. Perhaps this is clear indication that although Kenya s cultural attractions are rarely marketed by overseas tour oper
43、ators, there is overwhelming latent demand for these attractions. It can therefore be argued that Kenya s rich and diverse indigenous cultures have great potential for tourismdevelopment. Tourism research has shown that cultural attractions are becoming main motivational factors for global tourists.
44、 Furthermore, changing demographic and economic trends, including increasing levels of affluence, educational and cultural awareness encourages public demand for cultural attractions. International tourists gave various ratings on product quality, from below average (the lowest rating) to excellent
45、(the highest rating). Overall, an overwhelming 86% stated that they had received value for money in terms of service delivery in the hotels, unique cultural attractions and pristine sand beaches. Attributes that were rated below average included transport infrastructure and the level of cleanliness
46、of Mombasa and adjacent townships. This should not be surprising. In areas adjacent to the resort hotels and other tourism establishments, there are slum settlements inhabited by local residents. It has been estimated that over 60% of local residents in Mombasa and adjacent townships live in slum se
47、ttlements which lack basic amenities (Kenya Government, 2002). Paradoxically, some of these settlements have, in recent years, sprung up in areas adjacent to the luxurious tourist hotels and condominiums. Grinding poverty and social deprivation is so extreme that, quite often, there is a mismatch an
48、d miscommunication between tourism developers in the public and private sector and marginalised local residents. This scenario creates despondence and disenchantment among local residents as vividly captured by the following remark by a local resident in one of informal settlements in Mombasa: Look
49、at the magnificent hotels that surround us with all the accompaniment of luxury and grand living enjoyed by international tourists. Even the lawns and flower gardens are constantly sprinkledwithwater to maintain their aura of beauty and greenery. Yet we the indigenous people lack basic necessity of earning a simple and decent livelihood. We continue to wallow in extreme poverty and destitution having no access to basic amenities and services such as clean running water, sanitation services and power supply. Such a disquieting scena
