1、 1 外文翻译 原文 What Is Direct Selling?Definition,Perspective And Research Agenda Material Source:Journal of Personal Selling in many regards it is similar to the definition proposed by the industry trade association in Washington DC: “A method of distribution of consumer goods and services through perso
2、nal (seller to buyer)contact away from fixed business locations, primarily in a home“ (Direct Selling Education Founda tion 1992). This latter definition adds emphasis to the consumer market focus of direct selling and adds a strategic flavor by calling it a distribution method. A full understanding
3、 of direct selling requires that it be viewed from three perspectives, here designated as “operational,“ “tactical,“ and “strategic.“ These perspectives collectively provide a framework for discussing direct selling and facilitate its exposition at three levels of management interest. For researcher
4、s and scholars these perspectives help define the domain of direct selling by elucidating the diversity of ways where by it is implemented and by identifying the key components that characterize direct selling and distinguish it from other marketing methods. Operational Perspective The proffered def
5、inition of direct selling can be most easily considered from an operational or physical activity perspective. At its essence, direct selling consists of two major elements: (1) “face-to-face selling“ that is (2) “away from a fixed retail location.“ As such, direct selling is nothing more than a form
6、 of interpersonal communication between two individuals. These two individuals a (potential) seller and a (potential) buyer exchange information with one possible outcome being a mutually beneficial transaction (i.e., a sale/purchase).More specifically, in direct selling two individuals physically (
7、personally) interact in a face-to-face communication context. This face-to-face or personal selling context is what differentiates direct selling from direct marketing. Direct selling is distinct from direct marketing in that at an operational level it does not involve mailed catalogs. telemarketing
8、, direct response advertising, infomercials, or the like. Direct selling is a form of non store retailing that occurs outside of a traditional retail establishment.Such well-known direct selling companies as Amway or Tupperware have no retail stores from which a consumer can purchase their products.
9、 Most commonly the purchase takes place in a home (usually the buyers), in a workplace (typically the buyers),or in a neutral location (e.g., a church, a shopping mall, fair, or a third-party home). This ocational characteristic differentiates direct selling from personal selling that takes place in
10、 a retail store. 3 Compared to other marketing methods, direct selling possesses several important benefits. Most prominent among these benefits are its flexibility and the quality and quantity of information that can be exchanged. Direct selling is flexible in that it is not constrained by either l
11、ocation or time. It can occur in places and at times most convenient to a potential buyer . Further, the ability to communicate face-to-face means that all communication senses can be utilized hearing, sight, smell, and touch. It also means that a potential buyer can explain his or her needs in dept
12、h, a sales presentation can he individually customized, and the buyer can be thoroughly educated about products and services being marketed through actual demonstrations and personal involvement.Hence,from an operational or activity perspective, direct selling epitomizes relationship marketing . In
13、fact, relationship marketing was first practiced by direct sales-people, those traveling “peddlers“ who brought news,anecdotes, and fanciful products to brighten the day of householders along their routes. Maintaining relationships is no trivial matter, however, and one of the major challenges of ma
14、nagers of direct selling firms involves helping salespeople generate repeat business from their ex-isting customers Tactical Perspective From an operational perspective, direct selling is a relatively straightforward personal selling activity. In practice, however, its execution takes on numerous fo
15、rms. In particular, direct selling, analogous to direct marketing, is not a homogenous phe-nomenon. Instead, there are several distinct tactics that are commonly employed under the rubric of direct selling. Consider that direct selling can be characterized by the type of salesperson used whether sel
16、ling agents are part-time or full-time whether the selling effort occurs in a home or elsewhere whether it is transaction oriented or relationship oriented whether it follows a party plan format whether it is multi level the extent to which selling agents are customers whether selling agents take ph
17、ysical possession of products the manner in which purchases are delivered and payment is obtained. By combining the ten direct selling characteristics or tactics into various configurations, a taxonomy can be constructed into which virtually all forms of direct selling can be classified. Each combin
18、ation of the charac-teristics would reflect a 4 unique configuration of direct selling tactics. There is, though, no specific combination of tactics that will either guarantee direct selling success or ensure failure. Whereas some of the characteristics are interdependent, others are mutually exclus
19、ive. Strategic Perspective Operationally, direct selling can be treated as a form of interpersonal communication or personal selling. From a tactical perspective direct selling can be considered a way of organizing sales activities and the selling function. Strategically, direct selling can be viewe
20、d as a channel or mode of distribution, a means of gaining access to a market, or a way of doing business. Direct Selling as a Distribution Channel Direct selling as a distribution channel originated when a producer sold its products or services directly to an end user or consumer. As already noted,
21、most direct selling currently involves independent contractors, individuals who purchase from a producer (at wholesale) and resell to consumers at retail. . Note that direct selling firms do not need to be producer firms; they may simply be marketing companies. To the extent that independent contrac
22、tors take title to and possession of the products and services they sell to consumers, they are analogous to the retailer in traditional fixed location retail channels.Rather than being organizations, independent contractors are people . Still, the independent contractors perform the same functions
23、as retailers: they promote, sell, and distribute products and services to consumers. Thus, contrary to popular myth, producers who market their products and services to consumers through direct selling channels do not automatically have a “direct“ relation-ship with their ultimate customers. In brie
24、f, in the most common form of direct selling, one type of channel intermediary retailers has simply been replaced with another type- independent contractors. Regardless of channel type, the same marketing functions must be carried out; only the manner in which they are carried out differs. Direct Se
25、lling as a Means of Gaining Access to a Market As a generic strategy, direct selling is a push marketing strategy This means that for a direct selling firm to be successful, all facets of its organization and manner ot doing business must be consistent with the tenets of a push marketing strategy. T
26、he influence of this strategic approach is most noticeable within the promotion component of the four Ps product, price, place, and promotion.Instead of strong reliance on mass and impersonal promotional efforts such as advertising, direct selling 5 organizations rely on the collective efforts of in
27、dependent contractors to achieve the companys communication and promotional objectives. The result is not only a more proactive promotional effort but also one that is tailored to the needs and circumstances of each potential buyer. Direct selling is an especially effective strategy for products and
28、 services with a high personal selling elasticity,where procrastination in purchasing is easy (e.g.,encyclopedias), and where personal attention to individual differences and desires of customers is critical (e.g., cosmetics, nutritional products). Direct selling as a strategy is also distinguished
29、in the place, component of the 4 Ps since it occurs away from any fixed retail location. Often the interaction between buyer and seller occurs in the buyers home or the home of the buyers friend. Under these circumstances, direct selling is especially effective as a strategy when the product involve
30、d is a household item that benefits from demonstration in that environment. Companies exemplifying this advantage include Party Life Gifts and Wicker Plus (decorative accessories). In the case of a party plan approach, direct selling is an effective strategy for products that might benefit from refe
31、rence group interaction among prospects attending the party. Companies and product lines that fit these circumstances include Colesce Couture and Jeunique (lingerie), Premier Designs and Act II Jewelry-Lady Remington (jewelry), and Dorling Kindersley and Usbourne Books at Home (childrens books and e
32、ducational materials). A further advantage of a push marketing strategy has been realized by direct selling firms entering newly-emerging market economies such as the Czech and Slovak Republics, Hungary, and Poland. In such economies a distribution system and supporting infrastructure exist only in
33、a very neophyte stage, and capital access is limited because many banks will not make capital investment loans (Rondinelli 1991). Since direct selling does not need a system of wholesalers and other facilitating agencies, does not rely on the existence of fixed retail locations, and replaces adverti
34、sing (requiring capital investment) with the motivated efforts of a multitude of salespeople, a direct selling distribution system can be very attractive in newly-emerging market economies. Further, there is some evidence that direct selling jobs are attractive to citizens in such economies . Beside
35、s the many U.S.-based direct selling companies that have established successful overseas operations, foreign-based firms such as Nutrimetics International and OriHame have successfully established direct selling operations in these countries . In fact, some evidence exists that suggests the success
36、of a direct selling strategy in a country is inversely related to the level of 6 consumer wealth in that country . While direct selling firms have achieved success in advanced economies such as the U.S. and Japan, future growth possibilities for direct selling firms might be more attractive in less-
37、developed economies with low consumer wealth and lack of infrastructure, such as China and South Korea Direct Selling as a Way of Doing Business Relative to in-store retailing as a way of doing business, direct selling possesses two unique characteristics. First, for many entrepreneurs and even larg
38、e corporations, direct selling is the preferred channel of distribution because it is “invisible.“There are no products on store shelves that competitors can monitor. A direct seller traditionally does not spend much on mass media; hence, competitors often have a difficult time learning about its st
39、rategy. Therefore, at times it is possible for a direct selling firm entering the marketplace to escape detection by competitors that might aggressively act against it until the firm has prepared itself and grown to a position of strength. In many instances the only evidence about the existence of a
40、 direct selling company consists of the products it markets or its recruiting efforts, and even these are sometimes below general public awareness thresholds. Second, direct selling can be undertaken by a firm with relatively little start-up capital, especially capital for marketing and distribution
41、 purposes (Granfield and Nicols 1975). Frequently, direct selling is the distribution mode cf choice for entrepreneurs or organizations that are relatively under capitalized. This is because sales tend to be self funding. especially when independent contractors are used, and sales can be achieved re
42、latively quickly. Indeed, when independent contractors are the selling agents, they are in fact the direct selling firms customers. A direct seller has no expense associated with gaining distribution through retail outlets or the oftentimes large inventory levels or slotting allowances that are requ
43、ired to gain in-store distribution. Furthermore, there is typically no need for large advertising expenditures to promote products cr services. Hence, marketing fixed costs are low relative to traditional fixed location retailing. Instead, however, resources that might be spent on advertising would
44、likely have to be spent on recruiting, training, and compensating salespeople. Even though widely discussed, direct selling is not well understood, and the term itself is often abused and misused. A suggested definition is “face-to face selling away from a fixed retail location.“ Although this is ef
45、fectively an operational definition, it possesses both tactical and strategic implications for the practice of direct selling. 7 More over, by defining direct selling in this manner, ths definition can be used as the basis of a paradigm that can guide future research on the phenomenon as well as ser
46、ve as a pedagogical guide when teaching direct selling. 翻译 什么是直销？定义，观点和研究议程 资料来源： Journal of Personal Selling & Sales Management 作者： Robert A.Peterson and THomas R. Wotruba 人们对商业流通最古老的方法都非常的了解，但对于直销这一新型的流通方 式，人们了解的并不多。这样的说法并不夸张，直销在营销文学中被关注的的确不多，美国一些流行的零售文本 ,梅森、迈耶 ,魏京森 (1903),甚至不考虑直销 ,许多商业字典 (例如 ,威廉姆
47、森 1994)不包含直销的 定义。而直销的定义也比较模糊，经常是模棱两可。 贝克 (1984 年 )和哈特和史蒂文雷特 (1992)以是否存在中间商来区分直销，然而很多直销商通过分销商、批发商、或其他中介机构来进行销售活动。伯恩斯坦定义 (1984 年 )主要集中于两点：直销晚会和面对面的销售 ,但显然没有注意到直销最显著的特点 ,那是它并没有固定的销售地点。 OSTROW 和史密斯在 1988 年下的在公司进行电话销售的定义也是不正确的，克莱认为电话销售只能称为直销的一种营销手段。而这个定义也混淆了班纳特条款中直销的营销方法。只有FEDSA 接近于确 切的定义：直销作为市场营销活动，涉及直销
48、员和消费者之间的接触，直售人员在固定地点以外的地方零售。然而即使这个定义 ,，也有一些不足的地方，它没有对面对面销售做进一步的说明，这样会容易使人误解。 我们需要的是一个直销的定义，既有足够的准确的信息，又很有意义，也能指导直销方面的研究和实践。中期的直销定义似乎符合这些标准。 一直销是离开了固定的零售的位置的面对面的销售 虽然这个定义也还不够完善 ,但它抓住了直销本质的同时 ,也将直销和其他的营销方式区分开来。这不是直销的唯一的说法，在华盛顿工业行业协会 也有很多类似的定义：“从固定销售点转移到消费者家中或其他地方的，通过个人消费品和服务和消费者进行联系的一种销售方式。”工业行会的定义增加了
49、消费者，而消费者是直销市场关注的重点，并且增加了一些战略性的定义进去。 充分理解直销需要从三个方面看，这三方面是指“操作”、“战术”、“战略。”这三方面为直销确立了一个骨架，也更加的便于在这三个层面上对直销进行阐述。研究者和学者通过阐明关键的部分来定义直销，并将直销和其他的营销方式区分开来 8 二 .操作的角度 这个定义可以认为是从操作的角度来看直销的。在本质上 ，直销由两个主要部分组成 :(1)面对面的销售 (2)离开了固定的零售的位置。 其实，直销就是个体之间的一种人际沟通，买方和卖方交换信息其实是一种互利的结果，更确切的说，是两个个体之间面对面沟通的一个过程，而这个面对面和个人销售时直销区别于传销的地方。在操作层面上直销有别于传销，直销并不包括邮寄电话，广告或其他类似的东西。 直销是一种离开了传统销售设施的，店外的销售方式，众所周知，安利和特百惠没有固定的零售商店，最常见的购买发生在消费者的家里 ,单位 ,或在一个公共的地方 (例如 ,教堂 ,一个购物中心 )。这个职业特征是区分直销与那些在商店里的个人零售。 相较于其他营销方法、直销拥有多项重要的好处。其中最重要的好处是它的灵活性和信息的可交换性。直销是可变的 ,它不受位置和时间的限制，他可以出现在任何地方，也
