1、1 外文翻译 原文 Assessing biodiversity impacts of trade： a review of challenges in the agriculture sector Material Source: Impact Assessment & Project Appraisal Author: Treweek.J.R Brown.Claire Bubb.Philip Agricultural expansion is a major driver for loss of biodiversity； changes in land use or intensity
2、associated with trade liberalization can therefore have major consequences. Assessments of the impacts of agricultural trade have tended to neglect biodiversity ， despite its crucial role in maintaining productive agro-ecosystems. Advice on assessment of biodiversity impacts is required to support t
3、rade negotiations and reduce risks of unforeseen consequences for important biodiversity and those who depend on it for their livelihoods. This paper explores linkages between biodiversity and trade and draws on examples from the agriculture sector to reinforce the need to build a biodiversity-inclu
4、sive process for assessing impacts of trade policies and agreements. This paper reviews the need for assessing impacts of trade on biodiversity in the agriculture sector， taking into account the linkages among biodiversity， farming and poverty alleviation and the scale of impacts from agriculture on
5、 important biodiversity， it summaries some of the ways in which trade-related policies， agreements and measures can act as drivers for impacts of agriculture on biodiversity， and then sets out some key considerations for biodiversity-inclusive trade policies. The first four sections of the paper ide
6、ntify the main biodiversity issues in the agricultural trade policy context. The next section reviews the extent to which these issues have been addressed in past impact assessments of trade-related measures. Recommendations are then developed for fuller assessment of biodiversity impacts in the tra
7、de impact assessment process. A special case can be made for assessing the implications of agricultural trade policies and agreements for biodiversity， and for building safeguards into them to 2 ensure conservation and sustainable use. The goal is to develop policies that promote development and sup
8、port livelihoods through sustainable use of ecosystems and biodiversity. This requires systematic assessment at a policy or strategic level， preferably carried out as an integral part of the policy-making processes to avoid risks of unforeseen consequences for both “important” biodiversity and those
9、 people depending on it for their livelihoods and wellbeing. Advice is also required on the development of policies that will build biodiversity in the wider farmed environment as basis for sustainable farming and food security. The challenge for policy-makers is to develop policies and instruments
10、that recognize biodiversity as the basis for sustainable development and to achieve the millennium development goals. Although sustainable agricultural practices， fairer markets and healthy， biodiversity ecosystems are increasingly recognized as prerequisites for poverty reduction， food security and
11、 equitable development， agricultural expansion is one of the major drivers for loss of biodiversity worldwide， even within recognized global biodiversity hotspots. Changes in land use， or the intensity of use， associated with agricultural trade policy have major consequences， both for biodiversity i
12、tself and for future provision of the biodiversity-based ecosystem services that are essential to support productive farming in the future. Failure to consider the implications of trade policies and associated incentives and other activities on biodiversity and ecosystems can disadvantage the enviro
13、nment and some sectors of society， particularly during transitions or adjustment periods， as markets and patterns of production shift. Global rates of biodiversity loss are such that a relatively low level of conservation effort confined to protected areas is no longer adequate to safeguard the worl
14、ds ecosystem services. It is therefore necessary to ensure that all activities， including trade， are managed with biodiversity I mind. To build biodiversity considerations into the policy-making process it is necessary to understand: How agriculture and biodiversity interact； The agricultural trade
15、policy context； Linkages between trade in the agriculture sector and drivers of change influencing outcomes for biodiversity； What opportunities of “insertion points” exist for biodiversity in the 3 policy-making process. Biodiversity is an essential and integral part of healthy environments and. If
16、 too much biodiversity is lost， many essential environmental services， currently seen as “free goods”， will be undermined. Many of these services are fundamental to productive farming and their loss is a particular risk to poor communities with direct dependency on local natural resources to meet th
17、eir needs. The rural poor often make use of a variety of sources of income and subsistence activities to make a living. These might include small-scale farming and food growing， also hunting， fishing and collecting of firewood， herbs， medicinal plants and other natural products from “the bush”. In o
18、ther words， “environmental income” often complements income from other sources， particularly during “lean periods” or economic decline， when people often rely more heavily on the harvesting of wild food. Ecosystem degradation represents a direct threat to this nature-based income and can therefore e
19、xacerbate poverty. On the other hand， restoring the productivity of local forest， pastures and fisheries can have the opposite effect and increase local incomes. More than 1.3 billion people depend on fisheries， forest and agriculture for employment. A great many more depend on some form of farming
20、for their livelihoods. Biodiversity therefore underpins a major source of income and employment in rural areas. Although ecosystems and biodiversity perform a fundamentally important and well documented role in supporting livelihoods and represent crucial assets， particularly for the rural poor， the
21、y are often neglected in development planning. More importantly， they are often omitted from commercial evaluations of natural resources. A range of ecosystem services is needed to sustain viable agriculture. Essential functions such as nutrient cycling， rehabilitation of degraded soils， regulation
22、of pests and diseases， control of water quality and pollination are maintained by a wide range of biologically diverse populations in both “natural” and agricultural ecosystems. Maintaining important ecosystem services and the biodiversity that provides them reduces external input to agriculture req
23、uirements by increasing nutrient availability， improving water use and soil structure， and providing natural control of pests. As a general rule， more diverse ecosystems tend to be more stable. Diverse agro-ecosystems provide more niches for wild biodiversity to coexist with corps and 4 livestock an
24、d more opportunities for people to harvest a variety of biodiversity-based products alongside， or in conjunction with， their main corps， for example medicinal plants， or building materials. Loss of diversity at any level reduces ability to adapt and respond to environmental change and can therefore
25、restrict the future supply of ecosystem services. This is why biodiversity is sometimes referred to as the “life insurance for life itself”. However， agricultural ecosystems and biodiversity have a complex and dynamic relationship. It is not invariably true that modern agricultural practices reduce
26、biodiversity or that low-input， traditional farming is compatible with high biodiversity. For example， tropical irrigated rice systems are planted as uncultured but are often constructed in such a way that they are one of most stable agricultural ecosystems on the planet. Key to this stability are d
27、iversity in landscape temporal planting patterns， use of soil organic matter and low levels of pesticide use. Dykes between paddies are also able to support habitat for fish， insects， amphibians and water birds such as waders. Entirely artificial habitats， such as cropland can therefore support much
28、 biodiversity， for example， in cases where they from a small part of the landscape and are not managed intensively. In fact， various semi-natural habitats that are now highly valued， such as many open grasslands， are the result of human actions. It is therefore difficult to categories agricultural e
29、cosystems according to their biodiversity. Data on the biodiversity value of cultivated habitats in the developing world are not always readily available. However， there is evidence that about half 4Costa Ricas native forest species of birds， mammals， butterflies and moths also occur in agricultural
30、 areas. Biodiversity is the basis for evolution and therefore essential for adaptation to changing environments， for example， those resulting from climate change. Agriculture in the future will rely on crops and livestock that are able to adapt to new environmental conditions， and it may be necessar
31、y to derive these from wild ancestors and relatives of modern crops. Agriculture provides many crucial benefits ， including food security， domestic employment and export-related economic growth. The process of trade reform in the agriculture sector is based on the premise that reducing policy distor
32、tions and market failures will lead to more sustainable patterns of production. The current global trend liberalization， as embodied in the agreement on agriculture， which forms part of Final Act of the 1986-1994 Uruguay Round of 5 trade negotiations. This agreement provides a framework for long-ter
33、m reform of agricultural trade and domestic policies， with the general objective of increased market orientation. It also includes provisions for adjustment and specific measures to assist net food-importing countries and least-developed countries. Trade liberalization is generally seen as an import
34、ant tool for sustainable agricultural development， improving equity and fairness in global trade of agricultural commodities and ensuring that more people have access to markets and to economic opportunity. Rules and commitments made under the Agreement on Agriculture apply to: Market access - vario
35、us trade restrictions on imports； Domestic support - subsidies and other programmers， including those that raise or guarantee farm-gate price and farmers incomes； Export subsidies and other methods used to make exports artificially competitive. The agreement allows governments to support their rural
36、 economies ， preferably through policies that cause least distortion to trade. It also allows some flexibility in the way commitments are implemented. Developing countries do not have to cut their subsidies or lower their tariffs as much as developed countries， and have extra time to complete their
37、obligations， whereas least-developed countries do not have to do this at all. Biodiversity is an integral part of any healthy ecosystem and there is a strong interdependence of biodiversity with food security and poverty. Agricultural ecosystems include cultivated biodiversity and also wild biodiver
38、sity ， both providing a range of ecosystem services. Biodiversity and agricultural systems can have a mutually beneficial relationship， with agricultural ecosystems beneficial relationship， with agricultural ecosystems supplying niches of habitat for wild biodiversity and wild biodiversity providing
39、 important services such as pollination and pest management in return. Agriculture has generated biodiversity-rich environments but is also a major cause of biodiversity loss worldwide. The relationship among biodiversity， agriculture， ecosystem services， livelihoods and trade policies is complex an
40、d cannot be managed effectively without understanding the main linkages and drivers of change. There is tremendous scope for， and benefits from， addressing biodiversity as a cross-cutting issue within assessment of agricultural trade policies. Developing better understanding of the impacts of agricu
41、ltural trade policies on biodiversity will 6 assist in promoting more informed policy and decision-making and an understanding of trade-off that may be necessary. Until recently， biodiversity has not been priorities within assessment of agricultural trade policies， resulting in possible ongoing risk
42、s to agricultural biodiversity and ecosystem services. Biodiversity-inclusive approaches to assessment can provide many benefits， encouraging sustainable trade， stimulating inter-governmental and inter-sectored dialogue， strengthening good governance in trade policy and increasing transparency in de
43、cision-making. 多样性对贸易的影响：回顾农业部门的挑战 资料来源： Impact Assessment & Project Appraisal 作者： Treweek.J.R Brown.Claire Bubb.Philip 农业扩展是生物多样性减少的一个主要原因；联合贸易自由化的主要后果是在土地利用或强度上的变化。对农业贸易影响的评价倾向于忽略生物的多样性，尽管它在维护农业生态系统生产力上起关键作用。评估对生物多样性影响的建议，要求支持贸易谈判和降低重要生物多样性后果的未见性风险，以及那些依靠它以维持生计的人。本文探讨生物多样性和贸易之间的联系，并且结合实例得出，农业部门需要加
44、强建立贸易政策及协议包含对生物多样性 影响进行评估的过程。 本文综述了农业部门的贸易需要对生物多样性影响进行评估，考虑在生物多样性间的联系，分析农业对生物多样性、扶贫及规模的重要影响，并总结了贸易政策，协议和措施可能作为对农业生物多样性影响的驱动程序，同时提出了对生物多样性包含贸易政策实施的关键因素。 本文的前四个部分在农业贸易政策上鉴定主要生物多样性问题。下个部分回顾评估了过去的贸易措施对这些问题的影响程度。建议在进行商业评估中对生物多样性影响作更充分的评估。 特殊情况下可评估农业贸易政策的内涵和对生物多样性的协议，并建立安全措施确保他们的保 护和可持续利用。 这个目标是发展政策 ， 促进发
45、展 ， 支持生态系统和生物多样性的可持续利用政策。这要求在政策或战略水平上进行系统评估，最好是作为一个不可分割的一部分执行决策过程 ， 以避免未预见性后果的危险，既是 ”重要 ”的生物多样性，又是那些人视它为他们的生计和福利的。在更大的范围建立生物基础养殖7 环境，进行发展可持续农业和粮食安全，也是必需的发展政策。 政府决策人员所面临的挑战是发展政策和仪器，这些对识别生物多样性的可持续发展具有重要意义，以便实现千年发展的目标。虽然有可持续农业的措施和公平健康的市场，但是生物多样性 的生态系统正日益成为减少贫困的先决条件。食品安全和公平的发展，农业的扩展是全球生物多样性减少的一个主要原因，甚至被
46、公认为是全球性生物多样性的热点。 在土地利用上的变化，或者使用强度，与农业贸易政策有重大影响，并且为未来支持农业生产力的发展提供必要的生物多样性和基于生物多样性的生态服务。因为生产的市场样式转移，特别是在社会转型时期，疏忽考虑了贸易政策及相关优惠等活动对生物多样性影响和生态系统中可能不利于环境和社会的其他活动。全球生物多样性的保护已不再是一个仅限于保护区的、较低级的保护工作所能够保护世界的生态服 务系统。因此，处理生物多样性的关键是确保对包括商业在内的所有活动的管理。 考虑建立生物多样性就要对决策过程有必要的了解： 农业与生物多样性如何互动； 了解农业贸易的政策背景； 农业贸易和生物多样性之间
47、的影响变动关系； 在生物多样性的决策过程中存在哪些 “ 插入点 ” 机会。 生物多样性是健康环境必不可少的组成部分。如果过多的生物多样性丧失，许多基本环境服务和当前看作是 “ 免费物品 ” 的将会被破坏。很多的这些服务都是生产农业的基本条件，并且他们的丧失对贫穷社区或直接依赖当地自然资源来满足自身需求具有一定的风险。农村的贫困 人口经常使用多种收入来源和生存活动来谋生。这些可能包括小规模农业和食物的增长，也包括狩猎、捕鱼和从 “ 灌木 ” 中收集柴火、药草、药用植物等其他自然产品。 换句话说， “ 环境收入 ” 经常补充 其他来源的收入，特别是在 “ 萧条期间 ”或经济衰退期间，那时人们经常在
48、很大程度上依靠收获野生食物。生态系统的退化直接威胁到基于自然收入的人们，从而可能加剧贫困恶化。另一方面，恢复当地森林、牧场地和渔业的生产力可能会产生相反的作用，并提高当地居民的收入。 全球超过 13亿人口依靠渔业、林业和农业为就业机会。许多更依赖于某种耕作形式为生。因 此，巩固生物多样性是农村主要收入来源和解决农村劳动力就业问题的措施。 虽然对生态系统和生物多样性的执行在维持生计上是重要的，同时有大量的文件证明了他们是关键角色的代表。特别是在贫困农村，在发展规划时他们常常被忽略。更重要的是，在商业评估中他们的自然资源往往也被忽略。 8 生态系统服务的功能是需要维持可实行的农业。基本功能是对营养
49、循环，康复退化的土壤，害虫和疾病的规定。控制水质和花粉是从 “ 自然 ” 和农业生态系统两方面对生物多样性的保护。维护重要的生态系统服务功能和物种的多样性为他们减少外部投入，从而增加农业收入提供 了有效性措施，提高用水和土壤结构，并控制自然虫害。 通常，多元化的生态系统更趋于稳定。多元化的农业生态系统为野生生物提供了更多的生存空间和数量，同时人们有更多的机会去收获各种多样性的生物产品，或与他们的主要产品配合。例如药用植物或建筑材料。任何级别多样性能力的丧失都将反应环境的变动，因此可以制约生态服务的未来供应。这就是为什么生物多样性有时被称为生命的 “ 人寿保险 ” 。 然而，农业生态系统和生物多样性是一个复杂的、动态关系。它并不是简单的现代农业减少投入的措施，而是生物多样性与传统农业的高兼容性。例如，热带地区 的灌溉水稻种植系统被当作单一作物。虽然热带地区的灌溉水稻系统的构建思想落伍了，但常常还是以这种方式生产，因为在这个星球上这是最稳定的农业生态系统。这种
