1、 外文翻译 原文 Comparative Advantage: Theory, Empirical Measures And Case Studies Material Source: Review of Economic and Business Studies Author: Tri WIDODO Abstract: This paper consists of three main parts i.e. theory, analytical tool and case studies of comparative advantage. Firstly, we review the the
2、ory and various empirical measures of comparative advantage. We would argue that for the catching-up economies, like ASEAN countries, the meaning of “leading exported products” could be examined from the two points of view i.e. international competitiveness and countrys trade balance. Secondly, we c
3、ombine two indexes of comparative advantage, i.e. Revealed Symmetric Comparative Advantage (RSCA) index by Dalum et al. (1998) and Laursen(1998), and Trade Balance Index (TBI) by Lafay (1992), which represent well the two points of view, to propose an analytical tool, namely “products mapping”. Thir
4、dly, this analytical tool is applied to analyze exported products (defined as 3-digit SITC Revision 2) of the ASEAN countries. This paper concludes that in the cases of ASEAN countries, the higher the comparative advantage for a specific product, the higher the possibility of the country as a net-ex
5、porter becomes. This finding strongly supports the theory of comparative advantage. 1. INTRODUCTION In the theories of international trade, comparative advantage is an important concept for explaining pattern of trade. David Ricardo (1817) firstly introduces the concept of comparative advantage with
6、 very strict assumptions. It is then well recognized as the Ricardian model. In the modern theories of international trade, such strict assumptions are replaced with the more realistic ones. Heckscher (1919) and Ohlin (1933) examine the effect of different factor endowments on international trade. T
7、heir model, which is well known as the Heckscher-Ohlin (HO) model, concludes that a country will export commodity uses the abundant factor of production, while it will import commodity uses the scarce factor of production. Some other new models also relaxing the several assumptions have emerged such
8、 as the imitation lag hypothesis (Posner, 1961), the Linder model (Linder, 1961), the flying geese model (Akamatsu, 1961, 1962), the gravity model (Tinbergen, 1962), the product cycle theory (Vernon, 1966), the Krugman model (Krugman, 1979), and the reciprocal dumping model (Brander, 1981; Brander a
9、nd Krugman, 1983). The appearances of such new models have not reduced the popularity of comparative advantage concept, which recently becomes dynamic one. Some economists argue that a countrys comparative advantage is dynamic, instead of static. So far, the dynamic theory of comparative advantage h
10、as put greater attention on the changes in supply (production) side. This is related to how specific determinants affect the output (economic) growth and, in turn, comparative advantage. Redding (2004) finds that comparative advantage is endogenously determined by the past technological changes and
11、innovation. The dynamics of comparative advantage might be also caused by the role of input trade (Jones, 2000), the friction in international trade and investment flows due to geography, institutions, transport, and information cost (Venables, 2001), the transmission of knowledge across borders (Gr
12、ossman and Helpman, 1991), the technological differences across border (Trefler, 1995), and the monopolistic competition in differentiated products with increasing return to scale (Krugman, 1979). Indeed, many applied economists, e.g. Liesner (1958), Kanamori (1964), Balassa (1965), Donges and Riede
13、l (1977), Bowen (1983), Vollrath (1991), Dalum et al. (1998) and Laursen (1998), among others, have tried to make various empirical measures to “reveal” countries comparative advantage. This paper aims to review the concept and empirical measures of comparative advantage and to derive an analytical
14、tool, namely “products mapping”, which is suitable for analyzing comparative advantage of the catching-up economies, like the ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) countries. The remainder of this paper consists of five parts. Part 2 describes briefly literature review on the theory of comp
15、arative advantage, starting from the Ricardian model to the dynamic comparative advantage. Part 3 presents various empirical measures of comparative advantage. In Part 4, we propose an analytical tool, namely “products mapping”. We would argue that, for the catching-up economies, the meaning of “lea
16、ding exported products” could be examined from two points of view i.e. international competitiveness and countrys trade balance. We combine two indexes, i.e. Revealed Symmetric Comparative Advantage (RSCA) by Dalum et al. (1998) and Laursen (1998); and Trade Balance Index (TBI) by Lafay (1992), whic
17、h represent well the two points of view, to create an analytical tool, namely “products mapping”. The analytical tool is then applied to analyze exports of the (ASEAN) countries, as the case studies. The empirical results are described in Part 5. Finally, several conclusions are presented in Part 6.
18、 2. LITERATURE REVIEW: FROM STATIC TO DYNAMIC COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE 2.1 The Ricardian model The principle of comparative advantage postulates that a nation will export the goods or services in which it has its greatest comparative advantage and import those in which it has the least comparative adva
19、ntage (Ricardo, 1817). The term “comparative” means relative not necessarily absolute. The Ricardian model is based on several strict assumptions: (1) fixed endowment of (identical) resources, (2) factors of production are completely mobile between alternative uses within a country, factors of produ
20、ction are completely immobile externally, (3) a labor theory of value is employed in the model, (4) the level of technology is fixed for both countries, (5) unit costs of production are constant, (6) there is full employment, (7) perfect competition, (8) no government-imposed obstacles to economic a
21、ctivity, (9) internal and external transportation costs are zero, (10) for simple analysis: a 2-country, 2-commodity “world” (Appleyard and Field, 2001). Suppose there are two countries A and B, which produce two commodities X and Y. For country A, let us denote X and Y are the unit labor requiremen
22、ts in X and Y, respectively; QX and QY are quantities of X and Y, respectively; and LA is total labor supply. Meanwhile, for country B, let us denote X and Y are the unit labor requirements in X and Y, respectively; and LB is total labor supply. The production possibility frontiers (PPF)2 for both c
23、ountries A and B are represented by XQx+YQY=LA and XQx+ YQY=LB, respectively. The slope (X/Y) is steeper than ( X/ Y). This indicates that X is relatively more expensive (in term of Y3) in country A than that in country B, while Y is relatively cheaper (in term of X) in country A than that in countr
24、y B. Country A will have a full specialization in Y, and country will have a full specialization in X. Each country can reach higher level of consumption by trading along the trade line (represented by the broken line). The possible terms of trade (TOT) lie in the range: ( X/ Y)TOT(X/Y). 2.3 Dynamic
25、 comparative advantage A countrys comparative advantage might change due to the changes in supply and demand sides in both domestic and international markets. The supply side is related to PPF; while, the demand side is related to community preferences. On this matter, Echevarria (2008) finds that i
26、n the long run, comparative advantage is driven by total factor productivity (TFP) differential. This explains the fact that less developed countries are likely to export primary commodities even though they are not less capital-intensive. In addition, non-homothetic preferences imply fewer countrie
27、s export only or mostly primary commodities as the global economy develops. 3. VARIOUS EMPIRICAL MEASURES OF COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE 3.1 Catching-up economies: dynamic comparative advantage Many domestic and international factors determine a countrys comparative advantage. Balance et al. (1987) argue
28、that economic conditions in the various trading countries will determine the international pattern of comparative advantage and the pattern of international trade, production and consumption (TPC) among countries. In empirical studies, researchers apply data on TPC, such as exports, imports, product
29、ion and consumption, to “reveal” countries comparative advantage. However, the application of such data brings several problems about the data aggregation, the magnitude of TPC data, the concordance TPC data and the government trade interventions. One of the very famous theories related to TPC is th
30、e Flying Geese (FG) paradigm by Akamatsu (1961, 1962). Figure 4 represents the FG paradigm, which consists of the four following catching-up stages (Kojima, 2000): (1) First stage: manufactured consumer goods are imported from advanced countries (started from t1 in Panel a). (2) Second stage: the do
31、mestic production (import-substitution strategy) exists (started from time t2 in Panel a). At the same time, the country must also import capital goods (started from t2 in Panel b). (3) Third stage: the domestic production are also for exports (started from t3 in Panel a). At time t*, trade in consu
32、mer goods is in the equilibrium or trade balance (Export=Import) and domestic production equals domestic demand (since domestic demand = domestic production export + import). This stage implies a successful implementation of the catching-up process of the industry concerned along the sequential path
33、 import-production-export (MP-E), which is the basic pattern of the FG model. (4) Fourth stage: the advanced status in consumer goods industry is further elevated. It is shown by the decrease of export in consumer goods (from t4 in Panel a), meanwhile capital goods export start (from t5 in Panel b).
34、 The industry is reallocated to the less-developed countries (Offshore production depicted by broken line in panel a), based on their comparative advantage. 4. “PRODUCTS MAPPING” FOR ANALYZING COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE OF THE CATCHING-UP ECONOMIES 4.1 Leading exports: two points of view We would argue t
35、hat the meaning of “leading exported products” could be examined from two different points of view, i.e. domestic trade-balance and international competitiveness. First, from the domestic point of view, leading exported products are meant as exported products that can give bigger amount of foreign e
36、xchange for domestic economy. From the standard macroeconomic identity Y=C+I+G+(X-M), where Y, C, I, G, X and M are output, consumption, investment, government expenditure, exports and imports, respectively, it is clearly shown that trade-balance (X-M) is one of sources of output growth (Y). From th
37、is point of view, the higher the share of a specific product in the total domestic exports, the more significant the contribution of the exported product to the domestic economy becomes. Such product can be considered as foreign exchange creators for domestic economy. Second, from international comp
38、etition point of view, leading exported products are products that have high comparative advantage in the international market. A specific exported product becomes leading export if its share in the total world export is dominant. It might be possible that a specific product is not significant as fo
39、reign exchange creator but it can compete internationally. 6. CONCLUSIONS This paper discusses the theory, empirical measures and case studies of comparative advantage. For the developing or catching-up economies, like the ASEAN countries, the meaning of “leading exported products” can be seen from
40、two different points of view i.e. domestic interest (exports as foreign exchange creator) and international competition. We make an analytical tool namely the “products mapping”, which is suitable for analyzing the catching-up countries comparative advantage. The analytical tool is, then, applied to
41、 examine the ASEAN countries exports. We conclude that there is a positive relationship between comparative advantage and trade balance. The higher the comparative advantage of a specific product, the higher the possibility of a country as a net-exporter becomes. This strongly supports the theory of
42、 comparative advantage. 译文 比较优势：理论、实证分析及案例分析 资料来源 :经济回顾和商业研究 作者： 特里 维多多 摘要 ： 本文分为三个主要部分，即比较优势理论，分析工具以及案例分析。首先，我们回顾了比较优势理论以及比较优势的各种实证分析方法。我们会认为，对于赶超型经济体，如欧盟国家，“出口主导产品”的含义可以从两点来验证，即国际竞争力和国家贸易平衡。其次，我们结合了两个比较优势指标，即达拉木等人（ Dalum et al.,1998）和劳森 (Laursen,1998)提出的 显示性对称比较优势指数（ RSCA），拉斐（ Lafay,1992）提出的贸易平衡指数
43、，很好地体现了上述的两个观点并提出了一个分析工具，命名为“产品定位”。第三，这种分析工具运用于出口东盟国家的产品（如三位国际贸易标准分类第二版的定义）。本文的结论是在东盟国家的案例中，一个特定产品的比较优势越大，它成为净出口国的可能性就越大。这一发现有力地支持了比较优势理论。 1.简介 在国际贸易理论中，比较优势是解释贸易格局的重要概念。 大卫李嘉图（ David Ricardo ,1817）首先介绍了比较优势非常严格的假设的概念。这是当时公认的李嘉图模型。在现代国际贸易理 论中，这种严格的假设被更为切合实际的替代。赫克歇尔（ Heckscher,1919）和俄林（ ohlin,1933）研究
44、不同要素禀赋对国际贸易的影响。他们的模型，即众所周知的赫克歇尔俄林模型，该模型总结得出一个国家会出口生产要素丰富的产品，同时将进口生产要素稀缺的商品。其他一些新模型也放宽了一些出现的假设，例如模仿滞后假说（波斯纳 ,1961），林德模型（林德 ,1961），雁行模式（赤松 ,1961,1962），重力模型（丁伯根 ,1962），产品周期理论（弗农 ,1966），克鲁格曼模型（克鲁格曼 ,1979），以及 相互倾销模型（布兰德 ,1981;布兰德和克鲁格曼 ,1983）。 这种新模型的出现并没有降低比较优势概念的声望，它最近成了一个流行动态。一些经济学家认为，一个国家的比较优势是动态的而不是静态
45、的。到目前为止，比较优势的动态理论非常重视供给（生产）方面的变化。这是涉及到具体决定因素如何影响到输出（经济）增长，相对的，对比较优势也有影响。雷丁（ Redding,2004）发现，内生比较优势由过去的技术变化和创新决定。动态比较优势也可能是由 输入贸易（ Jones,2000）的作用造成的，国际贸易和投资流中存在的的摩擦归责 于地理、制度、运输和信息成本（ Venables,2001）、知识的跨国传播（ Grossman and Helpman,1991）、跨边界的技术差异（ Trefler,1995），在不同的产品中的垄断与竞争以及规模报酬递增（ Krugman,1979）。 事实上，许
46、多应用经济学家，例如莱思勒（ Liesner,1958）， 金森 （ Kanamori ,1964），巴拉萨 （ Balassa,1965），多杰斯和里德尔（ Donges and Riedel ,1977），鲍恩（ Bowen ,1983），渥尔瑞斯（ Vollrath 1991）， 达拉木 等人（ Dalum et al.,1998）和劳森（ Laursen,1998 年），其中也有人试图用各种实证措施去“揭露”国家的比较优势。 2.文献综述：从静态到动态比较优势 2.1 李嘉图模型 比较优势的原理是假设，一个国家将出口比较优势最大的商品或服务，进口比较优势做小的商品或服务（李嘉图， 18
47、17）。所谓“比较”是指相对并不一定是绝对的。 李嘉图模型是基于一些严格的假设：（ 1）给定生产要素供给 （ 2）要素在国内自由流动但不能在国家之间流动 （ 3）劳动价值理论被应用于这个模型（一种要素投入劳动 ） （ 4）两个国家的技术水平是不变 的（ 5） 单位成本是常数（ 6） 充分就业（ 7） 完全竞争（ 8）政府明日有对经济活动施加障碍 （ 9）无运输成本 （ 10）或简单地分析：世界上只有两个国家，两种商品 (Appleyard and Field,2001)。 2.3 动态比较优势 一个国家的比较优势可能由于在国内和国际市场的供给和需求两方面的变化发生变化。供给方面和生产可能性边界
48、（ PPF）有关，而需求方面跟社会偏好有关。在这个问题上，埃切瓦里亚（ 2008）认为从长远来看，比较优势是考全要素生产率（ TFP）差来驱动的。着说明了一个事 实，欠发达国家有可能出口初级产品即使他们不是资本需求不高的。此外，随着经济全球化的发展，非同类偏好意味着只有少数国家出口单一的初级产品或主要是初级产品。 3.比较优势的各类实证分析 3.1 赶超型经济体：动态比较优势 一个国家的比较优势由许多国内和国际因素决定。班伦斯等人（ Balance et al. ,1987）认为各种贸易国家的经济状况将决定比较优势的国际格局以及国家间的国际贸易，生产和消费之的模式。在实证研究中，研究人员在 T
49、PC 申请数据，如出口、进口、生产和消费等等来“揭露”国家的比较优势。然而这种数据的应用带来了一些数据汇总、 TPC 数据大小、数据的一致性和政府贸易干预的问题。 4.“产品定位”来分析追赶型经济体的比较优势 4.1 主要出口产品：两种观点 我们会认为，“出口主导产品”的含义可以从两个不同的观点来验证，即国内贸易平衡和国际竞争力研究。首先，从国内来看，主要出口产品意味着作为出口产品可以给国内经济带来较大的外汇金额。从标准的宏观经济角度为 Y =的 C + I + G 含量 +（ XM 公司），其中 Y， C， I， G， X 和 M 分别是生 产，消费，投资，政府支出，出口和进口的意思，这显然表明，贸易天平（ X-M 公司）是产出增长的来源之一。从这个角度来看，特定产品在国内总出口中的份额越高，出口产品对国内经济的贡献就越大。这种产品可以被视为对国内经济的外汇创造者。 第二，从国际竞争的角度来看，出口主导产品是在国际市场上比较优势大的产品。一个具体的出口产品如果其在世界总出口的份额占主导地位，那么就能成为出口主导产品。一个特定的产品有可能不像外汇创造者那么重要，但它可以具有
