1、 外文翻译 原文 Location, Competition, and Economic Development: Local Clusters in Global Economy Material Source: http:/ Author: Porter.Michael CLUSTERS AND COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE Clusters affect competition in three broad ways that both reflect and amplify the parts of the diamond: (a) increasing the curr
2、ent (static) productivity of constituent firms or industries, (b) increasing the capacity of cluster participants for innovation and productivity growth, and (c) stimulating new business formation that supports innovation and expands the cluster. Many cluster advantages rest on external economies or
3、 spillovers across firms, industries, and institutions of various sorts.(n10) Thus, a cluster is a system of interconnected firms and institutions whose whole is more than the sum of its parts. Each of the three broad influences of clusters on competition depends, to some extent, on personal relatio
4、nships, face-to-face communication, and networks of individuals and institutions that interact. Although the existence of a cluster makes such relationships more likely to develop and become effective, they are far from automatic. Formal and informal organizing mechanisms and cultural norms often pl
5、ay a role in the functioning and development of clusters.(n11) Clusters and Productivity Scholars have sought to explain concentrations of firms in terms of economies of “agglomeration.“(n12) These normally have been seen to arise at either the industry level or for a diversified urban economy. Many
6、 treatments of agglomeration economies rest on cost minimization due to proximity to inputs or proximity to markets. These explanations, however, have been undercut by the globalization of markets, technology, and supply sources; easier mobility; and lower transportation and communication costs. Tod
7、ay, the nature of economies of agglomeration has shifted toward the cluster level and away from either narrower industries or urban areas per se. Access to specialized inputs and employees. Location within a cluster can provide superior or lower cost access to specialized inputs such as components,
8、machinery, business services, and personnel compared to vertical integration, formal alliances with outside entities, or “importing“ inputs from distant locations.(n13) The cluster, then, is a spatial organizational form that can be an inherently more efficient or effective means of assembling input
9、s than the alternatives, provided that competitive local suppliers are available. Sourcing outside the cluster might be necessary if competent local suppliers are unavailable, but it is not the ideal (first best) outcome. Given the inherent benefits of clusters, however, forces encouraging local sup
10、plier development and upgrading are strong, and constituent firms have an incentive to encourage entry of new suppliers or local investments by distant suppliers. Countervailing the advantages of clusters in assembling inputs and labor is the possibility that the concentration of cluster participant
11、s bids up the cost of scarce specialized inputs and personnel.(n14) Yet the ability to outsource many inputs limits any such cost penalty relative to other locations. More important, however, the presence of a cluster not only increases the demand for specialized inputs but also increases their supp
12、ly. The availability of specialized personnel, services, and components, and the number of entities creating them, often is far greater at clusters than elsewhere despite the greater competition. Access to information. Extensive market, technical, and other specialized information accumulates in the
13、 firms and local institutions within a cluster that can be accessed better or at lower cost, allowing firms to raise current productivity by getting closer to the productivity frontier. This also applies to the flow of information between units of the same company.(n15) Proximity, supply and technol
14、ogical linkages, and the existence of repeated personal relationships and community ties fostering trust facilitate the information flow within clusters.(n16) Obtaining information about current buyer needs is an important special case of the informational benefits of clusters. Sophisticated buyers
15、often are part of clusters, and other cluster participants have information about buyer needs that often is shared. Complementarities. A cluster enhances productivity not only through the acquisition and assembly of inputs but also through facilitating complementarities between the activities of clu
16、ster participants. Some of the most important types of complementarities are the following(n17): Complementary products for the buyer. In tourism, for example, the visitors experience is affected not only by the appeal and quality of the attraction (e.g., beach, historical site) but also by the qual
17、ity of the hotels, restaurants, souvenirs, airport facilities, and transportation, making the different parts of the cluster mutually dependent. Such complementarities across products in creating buyer value are common, being present not only in service delivery but also in product design, logistics
18、, and after-sales service.(n18) The co-location of firms and industries within a cluster makes it easier to achieve product-service coordination and creates internal pressures for improvement among parts of a cluster in ways that can substantially improve overall quality and/or efficiency. Marketing
19、 complementarities. The presence of a group of related firms and industries in a location offers efficiencies in joint marketing (e.g., firm referrals, trade fairs, trade magazines, marketing delegations). It also can enhance the reputation of a location in a particular field and makes it more likel
20、y that buyers will consider a vendor or manufacturer based there. Buyers can see multiple firms in a single visit. The presence of multiple sources for a product or service in a location also can reduce perceived buying risk by offering buyers the potential to multisource or switch vendors if the ne
21、ed arises. Complementarities due to a better alignment of activities among cluster participants. Linkages with suppliers, channels, and downstream industries are recognized and captured more easily within clusters than among dispersed participants. Substantial improvements in productivity also somet
22、imes are possible when several parts of a cluster change simultaneously (e.g., coordination to develop cluster standards and measures). Access to institutions and public goods. Clusters make many inputs that otherwise would be costly into public or quasi-public goods. The ability to recruit employee
23、s already trained in local training programs, for example, eliminates or lowers the cost of internal training. Firms often can access specialized infrastructure, advice from experts in local institutions, and the like at very low cost. Indeed, the information built up at a cluster can be seen as a q
24、uasi-public good.(n19) Some of the public or quasi-public goods available in clusters are similar to conventional public goods in the sense that they are closely linked to government and public institutions (e.g., public investment in specialized infrastructure, educational programs, information and
25、 trade fairs). However, other quasi-public goods available to cluster participants are created as a natural byproduct of competition. These include information and pools of technology, the reputation of the cluster location, and some of the marketing and sourcing advantages described earlier. In add
26、ition, public or quasi-public goods at cluster locations often are the result of private investments in training programs, private infrastructure, quality centers, and other forms that benefit a cluster. Private investments in cluster-specific public goods or quasi-public goods are common because of
27、 the collective benefits perceived by cluster participants. Often, such private investments in public goods take place through trade associations or other collective mechanisms. Incentives and performance measurement. Clusters help to solve or mitigate some agency problems that arise in more isolate
28、d locations and in more vertically integrated firms.(n20) Clusters improve the incentives within companies for achieving high productivity for several reasons. The first is competitive pressure. Rivalry with locally based competitors has particularly strong incentive effects because of the ease of c
29、onstant comparison and because local rivals have similar general circumstances (e.g., labor costs, local market access, utility costs), so that competition must take place on other dimensions. Second, the competitive pressure in a cluster is amplified by peer pressure, even among indirect or noncomp
30、eting firms. Pride and the desire to look good in the local community motivate firms to attempt to outdo each other. Clusters also make it easier to measure the performance of in-house activities because there often are local firms that perform similar functions. Managers, then, have wider opportuni
31、ties to compare internal costs with arms-length transactions as well as lower monitoring costs in comparing employee performance to that of others locally. The accumulation of knowledge in financial institutions should make lending and other financing choices better informed and should improve monit
32、oring. Clusters also offer advantages in terms of limiting opportunistic behavior in which one participant takes advantage of another or provides shoddy products or services (Enright, 1990). Because of repeated interaction, easy spread of information and reputation, and desire for standing in the lo
33、cal community, interactions among cluster participants are more prone to be constructive and reflect long-term interests. 译文 定位，竞争和经济发展：全球经济下的地方产业集群 资料来源 : http:/ 作者： Porter.Michael 集群与竞争优势 集群影响三大方面的竞争 ， 起到了既反映钻石又放大“钻石”的作用 ： 提高企业或产业的现有生产率 ； 提高学员的创新集群和生产力增长的能力 ； 促进新企业的形成，支持创新，扩大集群。 许多集群优势依赖于跨企业的外部经济，
34、产业溢出效应，以及各类其他机构。因此，一个集群是一组相互 关联的企业和机构的整体大于部分的总和更大的系统。三个集群的竞争取决于每个广泛的影响，并在一定程度上依赖于人际关系，面对面沟通，以及个人与机构之间的网络互动。虽然集群的存在使这种关系更有可能发展并且更有效，但离自动还有很大的距离。正式或非正式的组织机制和文化规范往往在集群的功能和发展中扮演着重要角色。 集群和生产力 学者们试图解释“聚集经济条件下”的企业集中。这些通常被认为产生于任何行业层面或一个多元化的城市经济。许多有关聚集经济的论述都建立在由投入和市场方面带来的成本最小化基础上。然而这些论述都已被市场、技 术及供货来源全球化和更方便的
35、流动、更低的运输和通讯成本所削弱。今天，聚集经济远离了城区，它的性质已转向了集群水平，也不再局限于狭隘的产业。至于专业的投入和员工，产业集群的位置可以提供优越的或更低成本的专业投入，比如组建、机械、商业服务、垂直整合的人力资源部及与外部企业实体的联盟，或者从遥远的地方“进口”的投入。集群是一个空间的组织形式，在装备投入上和极具竞争力的本地供应商方面更能提供高效或有效的方式。如果本地供应商都无法使用，集群外的采购可能是必要的，但它不是理想（第一最好）的结果。所述的集群优势，鼓励本地 供应商发展和升级的力量是很强大的，组成企业鼓励新供应商或遥远地方对本地的投资。在装备投入和劳动力方面的集群优势补偿
36、使集群参与者能够集中注意力在哄抬稀缺专业投入和人员成本上。外购能力限制了相关地方的惩罚价值。然而更重要的是，集群的存在不仅增加了对专业投入的需求也增加了他们的供应。专门人员，服务和组件的可用性，以及创造这些实体的数目往往是远远大于其他地区，尽管面临着更大竞争。 广泛的市场、技术和其他专业信息的获取促进了产业内企业级当地机构获取更好或更低成本，使企业更接近生产力前沿，从而提高当前生产力。这也适用于同一公司不同部门间的信息流动。类似的，供应和技术联系及反复的人际关系产生的信任促进了集群内信息的流动。获取当前买方所需信息是一个既重要又特别的集群信息利益。精明的买家往往是集群的一部分，其他集群参与者通
37、常分享他们所获取的买方需求信息。集群不仅仅通过收购和装备投入提高生产力，而且也通过促进集群参与者之间的互补性活动来达到提高生产力的目的。互补性主要有以下几个类型：针对买方的附 加产品，比如，在旅游时，游客不但被名胜古迹的质量所吸引，而且也受酒店、餐厅、纪念品、机场设施和交通质量所影响，这就使得集群的不同部分相互依存。这样的产品互补性，在买方价值创造方面是常见的，它的现时不仅在提供服务，而且在产品设计，物流和售后服务。协调产业集群内各企业的位置可以更容易地实现产品服务协调，创造内部压力，以大大提高集群各部分及整体的质量或效率。市场的互补性，一个相关企业和产业群的存在提供了更为高效的联合营销（例如
38、企业推介会。展销会，贸易杂志，营销代表团）。它还可以提高某个特定地点特定领域的声誉，使买 家更多地考虑当地的供应商或制造商。买家在单一的访问中可以看到更多的企业。多个来源的存在通过提供多来源的潜力或根据需要交换供应商降低了购买风险。互补性归功于集群参与者之间更好的联合活动。集群内与供应商、渠道和下游产业的联系相较于分散的参与者而言更容易被识别和捕捉到。在集群同时改变的情况生产率的大幅提高也是有可能的。（比如，协调集群发展标准和措施）机构和公共物品渠道方面，集群产生了许多投入，否则将被纳入公共或准公共产品成本。招聘员工的能力已经在当地的培训项目中受过培训，例如，消除或降低内部培训成本。公司经常可
39、以 获取专门的基础设施、当地机构专家的建议，从而更有可能降低成本。事实上，集群内建立的信息可以被看作是一种准公共物品。一些公共或准公共的类似传统的公共在某种意义上说，她们是月相关政府部门及公共机构密切相关的 (例如，专门的基础设施，教育项目，信息和贸易展览会等方面的公共投资 )然而，其他一些适用于集群参与者的准公共品被创作为竞争的自然副产品。这些包括信息和基础池，集群位置的声誉以及一些如前所述的行销及采购优势。另外，公共或准公共品常常是培训项目私人投资，私人基础设施，优质中心及其他对集群有益的形式的产物。在集群的具 体公共物品或准公共物品的私人投资是常见的，因为按类别与会者认为这是集体福利。通常，这样的公共物品私人投资发生在贸易协会或其他集体机制。激励与业绩衡量：集群有助于解决或减缓在一些更偏远的地区和更完善的垂直整合公司的代理问题。集群也更容易衡量内部活动，因为经常都是当地公司而且都有着类似的功能。那么经理拥有更多的比较公平交易的内部成本机会，也更易通过比较当地各公司的雇员表现来降低检测资本。金融机构的知识积累应当使贷款和其他融资方式有更好的知情选择易并且同时地应该提高检测。集群在限制投机行为方面（一个人参与利用他人 的优势或提供味蕾产品及服务）也有优势，由于反复的相互作用，以及想要在当地社区中立足的强烈意愿，集群参与者之间的互动将更具建设性，更能反映长远利益。
