1、1 外文翻译 原文 Shaping the Future of African Material Source: http:/ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/9518/1/cp04ny02.pdf Author:Hezron Omare Nyangito Sub Saharan African agriculture is currently facing challenges in international trade with respect to external market access conditions and competition in wo
2、rld markets as a result of trade liberalization efforts under the world trade organization (WTO) agreements and in particular the agreement on agriculture. The composition of agricultural exports and markets shows that exports from Sub Saharan Africa are less diversified with only five commodities m
3、ainly coffee, cocoa, cotton, hides and skins, and horticultural crops dominating in most countries. Markets are also concentrated on only a few countries with the European Union being a major market although intra Africa trade has increased in recent years because of regional integration efforts. Im
4、portant external market access barriers faced are tariff peaks and escalation particularly for agro-processed and livestock products in developed countries and non tariff barriers particularly sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) and technical barriers to trade (TBT) measures, safeguard and anti-dumping
5、 measures, and domestic and export subsidies on agricultural products for developed countries. The performance of agricultural exports from Sub Saharan Africa based on production and value for the period 1990 to 2000 shows mixed trends across countries and commodities. In general, there has been an
6、increase in production and exports of non-traditional commodities but exports of traditional exports for some countries show an increasing trend while for others they have stagnated or even declined due to declining world market prices and domestic marketing problems. In conclusion, the future of in
7、creased exports from Sub Saharan Africa countries lies in value adding for traditional commodities and diversification to non-traditional products such as flowers, fruits and, fish and fish products. Thus, tariff escalation and peaks for agro-processed products and NBTs such as SPS and TBT are 2 imp
8、ortant issues to be focused on during multilateral trade negotiations, as they are major barriers to increasing exports from Sub Saharan Africa. Domestic and export subsidies in developed countries are also of concern because they reduce the competitiveness of products from Sub Saharan Africa by dep
9、ressing world market prices besides making it difficult for these countries to diversify their agriculture. Agriculture remains an important sector in Sub Saharan African economies with many countries relying on the sector for employment, food, household incomes, foreign exchange earnings and source
10、 of raw materials for the manufacturing sector. In recent years, the agricultural sector has faced challenges in international trade particularly as a result of new imperatives in the new World Trade Order arising mainly from new multilateral trading arrangements. Besides the similarity of the expor
11、ted commodities, most of them are exported as raw materials rather than as processed products. This means that most countries do not benefit from the high prices associated with processed products. However, in recent years, most countries have started to encourage export of processed products. This
12、is particularly so for cocoa, coffee, fruit juices, meat and dairy products. Given the level of primary commodity dependence, it is not surprising that Sub Saharan Africa has been subjected to the full force of negative consequences in international trade, which affect primary commodities. Sub Sahar
13、an Africa has generally fallen behind other regions of the world in the export of primary commodities due to its steady loss of significant market shares over time for such key primary commodities as cocoa, tea, and coffee to more efficient producers in Asia and Latin America. However, there is an e
14、merging trend in world commodity trade whereby there is a shift towards non-traditional commodities including fruits, vegetables, fish and seafood which, are becoming increasingly important for Africa as well as processed agricultural and food products (UNIDO, 2000). Export subsidies are prevalent o
15、n commodities (cereals, dairy and beef products) in which most African countries are net importers. However, these commodities are also important as exports for at least 50% of total export of African countries such as Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Chad, Cote d Ivoire, Malawi, Mali, Rwanda, Tanzania
16、, and Uganda (Oyejide, 2004). The fact that these commodities are subsidized makes it difficult for most African countries to compete in the world market. By comparison, over-production in the case of tropical products (such as coffee, cocoa and tea) is induced by several factors. The most important
17、 one is increased productivity resulting from technical advances made by some traditional 3 producers in Asia and Latin America. Another is expansion of land allocated to production in, for example, Brazil, while a third factor is the emergence of new low-cost producers, particularly in Asia. Promin
18、ent examples among these are Malaysia (for cocoa) in the 1970s and 1980s and Viet Nam and Indonesia (for tea and coffee) in the 1980s and 1990s. On labor force ， Generally, the companies have the low level of labor force. Cadres of many companies are in shortage of necessary knowledge of modern scie
19、nce, technology and management so they have the limited vision. Many cadres are not excellent on foreign languages, informatics, and business administration. The issues on trade mark are not solved on good way. Many companies have been established and operate based on individual relations with the a
20、uthorized officials of state management organizations, not based on real competition capacity. This is big setback versus the companies wishing move forward amid epoch of growing transparent and professional business rules. Company small size: most agricultural companies have small size. Near 60% ag
21、ricultural and forestry companies have capital below VND 10 billions. So, their competitiveness and business performance are restricted. Actually, in Vietnam trade mark and market for agricultural products particularly, not many companies with famous trade mark. Without strong trade mark, Vietnam co
22、mpanies to deliver goods on low prices. Take rice case as example. Since years of decade 1990s, Vietnam rice had been exported from Can To City by foreign companies into many other countries under trade mark “ARI“, on price up to US$300 per ton. Meantime, the similar kinds of rice exported by Vietna
23、m companies got the price below US$ 200 per ton, even impossible to sell on the price level!” Saharan African countries relating to market access conditions for agricultural products make it apparent that both supply side and external market access conditions affect the performance of the agricultur
24、al sector and need to be focused on during the DDA and EPA negotiations. Sub Saharan African countries also need to provide more resources for development of the agricultural sector and also press for financial support from developed countries to support capacity to respond to challenges faced in in
25、ternational trade such as SPS and TBT measures. Measures to mitigate external market conditions such as complex tariff structures, peaks and escalation and use of production and export subsidies by developed countries which make it difficult for Sub Saharan African countries to access export markets
26、 easily and which are also responsible for unfair competition in world markets should also 4 be focused on during the multilateral trade negotiations. 译文 塑造非洲的未来 资料来源 : http:/ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/9518/1/cp04ny02.pdf 作者： Hezron Omare Nyangito 撒哈拉以南非洲地区的农业正面 临 在国际贸易方面的临挑战和对外部市场准入条件和在世界市场上竞争的
27、贸易自由化的结果的尊敬，努力根据世界贸易组织 (WTO)的协议 ,特别是农业（农产品）协定上达成共识。在农产品出口和市场的构成显示， 来自撒哈拉以南非洲地区 出口较少，只有五 项主要商品，咖啡、可可、棉花、皮革和园艺作物 ,却支配了大多数国家。市场也集中在只有少数非洲国家加入的欧盟，并以它作为主要市场，虽然近年来非洲内部由于区域一体化普遍加强致使经济增长。重要的外部市场准入障碍面临关税高峰，尤其是发达国家和非关税贸易壁垒在 农业和畜牧产品加工升级方面 特别是卫生与植物检疫、技术贸易壁垒采取的措施、保障和反倾销措施，以及发达国家对农业国内补贴和出口补贴。 来自撒哈拉以南非洲地区的农业产品出口根据
28、生产和价值在 1990 年至2000 年间显示出混合了不同国家、商品的趋势。 在一般情况下，出现了非传 统商品的产量和出口的增加，但出口到一些国家的传统出口产品却显示出增加的趋势，而对于其他国家，却有停滞甚至由于世界市场价格的下降和国内市场的问题而被拒绝。 总之 ,撒哈拉以南非洲国家出口增加的前途在于增加传统商品的价值和使非传统产品多样化 ,如花卉、水果、鱼和鱼产品。因此，关税升级和农业加工问题和技术性贸易壁垒等重要的问题集中在多边贸易谈判 ,因为他们是撒哈拉地区出口增加的主要障碍。发达国家的国内和出口补贴也是要担心的问题 ,因为他们通过压制世界市场价格并 导 致这些撒哈拉以南非洲国家难以使自
29、己的农产品多样化来降低产品竞争力。 农业在撒哈拉以南非洲国家仍然是一个重要的部门，该领域也是许多国家在就业、食品、家庭的收入来源 ,外汇收入和原料制造业材料方面的依赖。近年来 ,农业部门在国际贸易方面特别是 作为在新的世界贸易秩序中产生的新的多边贸易安排的新需要 ，面临着巨大的挑战。 除了出口商品有许多相似之处 ,大多数出口商品都是原料 ,而不是作为加工5 产品。这意味着大多数国家没有获益于高价格的加工产品。但是 ,近年来 ,很多国家都开始鼓励出口加工产品。尤其是可可、咖啡、果汁、肉和乳制品。考 虑到初级产品的依赖程度，撒哈拉以南的非洲地区在国际贸易中受到全部力量的负面后果 ,从而影响到初级产
30、品也就不足为奇了。其关键的 由于亚洲和拉丁美洲出现了更多有能力生产初级产品可可、茶和咖啡的生产者，撒哈拉以南非洲地区初级产品在重要市场所占份额持续丧失，导致初级产品的出口普遍落后于世界其他地区。然而，在世界商品贸易中有一个新兴趋势，即对非洲非传统商品有一个转移，包括水果，蔬菜，鱼类和海鲜，正变得跟农产品加工和食品一样越来越重要 (联合国工业发展组织 ,2000 年 )。 出口补贴在商品 (谷物、奶制品、牛肉产品 )出口中十分普遍，其中大多数非洲国家是净进口国。然而 ,这些商品出口也很重要 ,至少占总出口总额的 50%的非洲国家，如贝宁、布基纳法索、布隆迪、乍得、科特迪瓦、马拉维、马里，卢旺达，
31、坦桑尼亚和乌干达。事实上，这些商品的补贴使它大部分非洲国家在国际市场上竞争困难。相比较而言 ,热带产品 (如咖啡、可可和茶 )生产过剩的情况是被以下几个因素所诱发的。其中最重要的是亚洲和拉丁美洲的一些传统生产商提高生产率和海运技术进步。另一个原因是扩大土地分配到生产，例如巴西。而第三个因素是新的低成本生产商的出现，尤其是在亚洲，其中最突出的例子是在 70 年代和 80 年代的马来西亚（可可），以及在 80 年代和 90 年代的越南和印尼 (茶和咖啡 )。 在劳动力方面，公司通常拥有的劳动力处于低水平。许多公司里的干部匮乏现代科学、技术和管理的必要知识 ,所以他们的视野是十分有限。许多干部在外语
32、、信息科学、企业管理等专业方面不擅长。贸易中出现的诸多问题不能得到更好的解决办法。许多公司已经建立、运作起以个人和行政人员的关系为基础的管理机构 ,而不是根据真实的竞争能力。这是与公司所希望的朝透明化发展和专业业务规则的时代前进相对抗的重大挫折。公司规模小 :大多数农业企业规模小 。几乎有 60%的农业、林业公司资本低于 10 亿越南盾。所以 ,它们的的竞争力和经营业绩受到了限制。事实上 ,在越南商标和市场上，尤其是农产品业，没有很多公司有著名商标。如果没有强大的商标，越南公司货品的运输费用十分低廉。取大米案例为例。自 20 世纪 90 年代以来的十年间，越南的大米被外国公司以商标“阿里”从城
33、市赫柏能出口到许多其他国家，运输价格达到每吨300 美元。与此同时，类似品种的大米通过越南的公司出口价格低于 200 美元每吨，甚至无法卖到相应的价格 !” 撒哈拉以南非洲国家有关农产品的市场准入条件，使供应方和外部市场 准入条件对农业部门的绩效的影响更加明显，并且需要把重心集中在 DDA 和 EPA谈判。撒哈拉以南非洲国家还需要提供更多的资源用于发展农业部门，也可以6 从发达国家迫切要求获得财政支持，以支持在国际贸易中面临诸如 SPS 和技术性贸易壁垒措施的挑战时承担责任的能力。如复杂的关税结构，高峰、升级，发达国家使用生产和出口补贴，这使得撒哈拉以南非洲国家难以进入出口市场，在多边贸易谈判中还应该着重对世界市场的不公平竞争负责，这些都是减轻外部市场条件的措施。
