1、Critical Reasoning Bible NotesChapter 2 all of the information necessary to answer the question resides in the stimulus. The correct answer to a Must Be True question can always be proven by referring to the facts sated in the stimulus.Correct Answers in Must be True Question 1. Prephased AnswersPar
2、aphrased Answers are answers that restate a portion of the stimulus in different terms. Because the language is not exactly the same as in the stimulus, Paraphrased Answers can be easy to miss. Paraphrased Answers are designed to test your ability to discern the authors exact meaning. Sometimes the
3、answer can appear to be almost too obvious since it is drawn directly from the stimulus.There are two basic rules to follow when analyzing the diagrams:The part (stimulus or answer choices) at the start of the arrow is accepted as is, and no additional information can be brought in.The part (stimulu
4、s or answer choices) at the end of the arrow is what is affected or determined.“Except” & “Least” in Question Stems“Except” here does not mean polar opposite. “Except” means “other than”, when a “weaken EXCEPT” question stem appears, you are asked to find any answer choice other than weaken. (Could
5、strengthen the argument or simply have no effect on the argument.)The word “least” has a similar effect to “except”, when it appears in a question stem.2. Answers that are the sum of two or more stimulus statement (Combination Answers)Any answer choice that would result from combining two or more st
6、atements in the stimulus will be correct.Incorrect Answers in Must be True Question1. Could be True or Likely to be True AnswersThese answers are attractive because there is nothing demonstrably wrong within them. Regardless, like all incorrect answers, these answers fail the Fact Test.2. Exaggerate
7、d AnswersExaggerated Answers take information from the stimulus and then stretch that information to make a broaden statement that is not supported by the stimulus.3. “New” Information AnswersNew Information Answers include information not explicitly mentioned in the stimulus. Be careful with these
8、answers, because sometimes they may be correct:First, examine the scope of the argument to make sure the “new” information does not fall within the sphere of a term or concept in the stimulus.Second, examine the answer to make sure it is not the consequence of combining stimulus elements.4. The Shel
9、l GameAn idea or concept is raised in the stimulus, and then a very similar idea appears in the answer choice, but the idea is changed just enough to be incorrect but still attractive.5. The Opposite AnswerThe Opposite Answer provides an answer that is completely opposite of the stated facts of the
10、stimulus.6. The Reverse AnswerThe Reverse Answer is attractive because it contains familiar elements from the stimulus, but the reversed statement is incorrect because it rearranges those elements to create a new, unsupported statement.This category of incorrect answer is very broad, and some of the
11、 types mentioned below will fall under this general idea but place an emphasis on a specific aspect of the answers.E.g.Stimulus: Many people have some type of security system in their homes.Reverse Answer: Some people have many types of security system in their homes.Chapter5 Main Point QuestionThe
12、central truth of Main Point Question:Like all Must be True Questions, the correct answer must pass the Fact Test, but with the additional criterion that the correct answer choice must capture the authors point.Capture the authors conclusion when reading the stimulus!Two incorrect answer types:1. Ans
13、wers that are true but do not encapsulate the authors point.2. Answers that repeat premises of the argument.You must isolate the conclusion and then look for a paraphrase of that conclusion.Many Main Point question stimuli avoid using traditional conclusion indicators and this lack of argument indic
14、ator “guideposts” makes your task more challenging.Remember, if you are struggling to identify the conclusion in an argument, you can always use the methodology discussed. Conclusion Identification Method:Take the statements under consideration for the conclusion and place them in an arrangement tha
15、t forces one to be the conclusion and the other(s) to be the premise(s). Use premise and conclusion indicators to achieve this end. Once the pieces are arranged, determine if the arrangement makes logical sense. If so, you have made the correct identification. If not, reverse the arrangement and exa
16、mine the relationship again. Continue until you find an arrangement that is logical.Recognize the differences between Main Point and Must Be True question.Prompt for Main Point The main point of the argument above is that Which one of the following most accurately expresses the editors conclusion? W
17、hich of the following best summarizes the conclusion of the argument? The author hopes to prove which of the following? The argument seems to lead up to which of the following? Which of the following is the authors main point?Must Be True question stems appear in a variety of formats, but one or bot
18、h of the features described below appear consistently:1. The stem often indicates the information in the stimulus should be taken as true, as in:“If the statements above are true.”“The statements above, if true.”“If the information above is correct.”This type of phrase helps indicate that you are de
19、aling with a First Family question type.2. The stem asks you to identify a single answer choice that is proven or supported, as in:“.which one of the following must also be true?”“.which one of the following conclusions can be properly drawn on the basis of it?”“.most strongly support which one of t
20、he following?”“Which one of the following can be properly inferred.”In each case, the question stem indicates that one of the answer choices is proven by the information in the stimulus.Prompt for Must Be True: “If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true?”“If the
21、information above is correct, which one of the following conclusions can be properly drawn on the basis of it?”“The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following?”“Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the passage?”“Which one of the following is most
22、strongly supported by the information above?”Chapter 6 Weaken QuestionsIn addition to the Primary Objectives, keep the following rules in mind when approaching Weaken Questions:1. The stimulus will contain an argument. Because you are asked to weaken the authors reasoning, and reasoning requires a c
23、onclusion, an argument will always be present. In order to maximize your chances of success, you must identify, isolate, and assess the premises and the conclusion of the argument. Only by understanding the structure of the argument can you gain the perspective necessary to attack the authors positi
24、on.2. Focus on the conclusion. Almost all correct Weaken answer choices impact the conclusion. The more you know about the specifics of the conclusion, the better armed you will be to differentiate between correct and incorrect answers.3. The information in the stimulus is suspect. There are often r
25、easoning errors present, and you must read the argument very carefully.4. Weaken questions often yield strong prephases. Be sure to actively consider the range of possible answers before proceeding to the answer choices.5. The answer choices are accepted as given, even if they include “new” informat
26、ion. Unlike Must be True Questions, Weaken answer choices can bring into consideration information outside of or tangential to the stimulus. Just because a fact or idea is not mentioned in the stimulus is not grounds for dismissing an answer choice. Your primary task is to determine which answer cho
27、ice best attacks the argument in the stimulus.Answers that weaken the arguments conclusion will attack assumptions made by the author. Typically, the author will fail to consider other possibilities or leave out a key piece of information. In this sense, the author assumes that these elements do not
28、 exist when he or she makes the conclusion, and if you see a gap or hole in the argument, immediately consider that the correct answer might attack this hole.Three incorrect answer traps1. Opposite Answers2. Shell Game Answers3. Out of Scope AnswersWeaken QuestionsFamily 3: Answer Choice Stimulus1.
29、Primary ObjectiveCarefully read the stimulus, find the argument, and pay attention to the conclusion.Focus on the conclusion (The specifics of the conclusion), and use the arrow to draw the line of reasoningPrephase the stimulus by finding the GAP: Actively involved in every questionAccept the answe
30、rs as the way they are given, even if they include “new” information. Choose the answer that may force the author to make response towards your answer choice.2. The incorrect answer trapsCommon Weakening Scenarios1. Incomplete InformationThe author fails to consider all of the possibilities, or reli
31、es upon evidence that is incomplete. This flaw can be attacked by bringing up new possibilities or information.2. Improper ComparisonThe author attempts to compare two or more items that are essentially different.3. Qualified ConclusionThe author qualifies or limits the conclusion in such a way as t
32、o leave the argument open to attack.Opposite Answers: Never forget that you are meant to weaken the stimulus.Shell Game Answers: Pay attention to the specifics of the conclusion.Out of Scope Answers: Again, pay attention to the specifics of the conclusion.3. Types of questionsPremise & Conclusion (N
33、o cause& effect reasoning)Find the answer choice that directly weakens the conclusion. (The answer choice may not be principles but counterexamples.)Sub-classificationA) Incomplete Information (Like Cause& Effect Reasoning)The author fails to consider all of the possibilities, or relies upon evidenc
34、e that is incomplete. This flaw can be attacked by bringing up new possibilities or information.B) Improper ComparisonThe author attempts to compare two or more items that are essentially different.C) Qualified ConclusionThe author qualifies or limits the conclusion in such a way as to leave the arg
35、ument open to attack.PremiseConclusion (Cause and Effect Reasoning)Use the arrow to diagram the line of reasoning. Use the prephased answer to find the exact correct answer.If they ask you about “School dropouts”, never choose the answer concerning “School graduates”. Likewise, if they ask you about
36、 “塑料怎么会让动物窒息 ”, never choose the answer concerning “动物吃了塑料会中毒” (Meet and recite words.)E.g.1 Human beings have cognitive faculties that are superior to those of other animals, and once humans become aware of these, they cannot be made happy by anything that does not involve gratification of these fa
37、culties.Which one of the following statements, if true, most calls into question the view above?A. Certain animals- dolphins and chimpanzees, for example- appear to be capable of rational communication.B. Many people familiar both with intellectual stimulation and with physical pleasures enjoy the l
38、atter one.C. Some who never experienced classical music as a child will usually prefer popular music as an adult.D. Many people who are serious athletes consider themselves to be happy.E. Many people who are serious athletes love gourmet foods.Typical ways to attack a Causal ConclusionA) Find an alt
39、ernate cause for the stated effectB) Show that even when the cause occurs, the effect does not occur (Counterexamples)C) Show that although the effect occurs, the cause did not occur (Counterexamples)D) Show that the stated relationship is reversedE) Show that a statistical problem exists with the d
40、ata used to make the causal statement4. Final NoteCarefully read the stimulus and answer choices. Pay attention to the specifics of the conclusion, and classify answer choices to Contenders and Losers.Prephase answer. If the stimulus contains cause and effect reasoning, use the arrow to draw it.Try
41、to figure out the underline principles in every example that exists as an answer choice. Do not generalize.Be confident to yourself and pay attention to time limit.Chapter 7 Cause and Effect Reasoning1. Most causal conclusions are flawed because there can be alternative explanations for the stated r
42、elationship:Another cause could account for the effectA third event could have caused both the stated cause and effectThe situation may in fact be reversedThe events may be related but not causallyEntire occurrence could be the result of change2. Causality in the Conclusion versus Causality in the P
43、remisesCasual statements can be found in the premises or conclusion of an argument. If the causal statement is the conclusion, then the reasoning is flawed. If the causal statement is the premise, then the argument may be flawed, but not because of the causal statement.This is an argument with a cau
44、sal conclusion:Premise: In North America, people drink a lot of milkPremise: There is a high frequency of cancer in North AmericaConclusion: Therefore, drinking milk causes cancerIf a causal claim is made in the premises, however, then no causal reasoning error exists in the argument. (Of course, th
45、e argument may be flawed in other ways.) As mentioned previously, the makers of the GMAT tend to allow premises to go unchallenged and it is considered acceptable for an author to begin his argument by stating a causal relationship and then continuing from there:Premise: Drinking milk causes cancerP
46、remise: The residents of North America drink a lot of milkConclusion: Therefore, in North America there is a high frequency of cancer among the residents3. Situations that can lead to errors of causalityOne event occurs before anotherTwo (or more) events occur at the same time4. How to attack a Caus
47、al ConclusionFind an alternate cause for the stated effectBecause the author believes that there is only one cause, identifying another cause weakens the conclusion.Show that even when the cause occurs, the effect does not occurThis type of answer often appears in the form of counterexample. Because
48、 the author believes that the cause always produces the effect, any scenario where the cause occurs and the effect does not weakens the conclusion.Show that although the effect occurs, the cause did not occurThis type of answer often appears in the form of counterexample. Because the author believes
49、 that the effect is always produced by the same cause, any scenario where the effect occurs and the cause does not weakens the argument.Show that the stated relationship is reversedBecause the author believes that the cause and effect relationship is correctly stated, showing that the relationship is backwards undermines the conclusion.Show that a statistical problem exists with the data used to make the causal statement.补充: Conditional Reasoning(Conditional Reasoning 在 LSAT Logical Reasoning 中提及，但没有在 GMAT Critical Reasoning中被提及)C
