民族文化的概念【外文翻译】.doc

1、本科毕业设计（论文）外文翻译原文THECONCEPTOFNATIONALCULTURE1DEFINITIONOFNATIONALCULTURETHETERMCULTUREHASVARIOUSMEANINGS,ALLDERIVEDFROMTHELATINMEANING“WHICHISTHECULTIVATIONOFSOIL”INTODAYSCOLLOQUIALLANGUAGE,CULTUREISOFTENUSEDINTHESENSEOF“HIGHCULTURE,”PERHAPSBETTEREXPRESSEDBYTHEGERMAN“KULTUR,”WHENREFERRINGTOPAINTINGOR

2、CLASSICALMUSICCULTUREINTHEANTHROPOLOGICALSENSE,HOWEVER,ISNOTRESTRICTEDTOTHESETHINGS,BUTCOMPRISESALLPRODUCTSOFHUMANLIFEFURTHER,CULTUREDOESNOTONLYREFERTO“CIVILIZED”SOCIETIESALLHUMANGROUPSARESAIDTOPOSSESSCULTURE,EVENIFTHEYARECONSIDERED“PRIMITIVE”EVENIFTHEANTHROPOLOGICALUNDERSTANDINGOFTHETERMCULTUREISTA

3、KENFORTHEPURPOSESOFTHISRESEARCH,LITERATUREPROVIDESMOREDEFINITIONSTHOUGHTHEREISLITTLEAGREEMENTONTHEAPPROPRIATEDEFINITIONOFCULTURE,MOSTDEFINITIONSOFNATIONALCULTUREPLACEEMPHASISONSHAREDVALUESWHENADDRESSINGTHEQUESTIONOFVALUES,SOMEANTHROPOLOGISTSASKQUESTIONSLIKE“WHATSHOULDBE”OTHERAPPROACHESREFERTOMODALPR

4、ACTICESOFCOLLECTIVESINSTEADOFEMPHASIZINGTHEIMPORTANCEOFVALUESMODALPRACTICESARESIMPLYACTSORTHEWAYSTHINGSAREASTHERELEVANTAPPROACHESTOCONCEPTUALIZENATIONALCULTUREINSOCIALSCIENCESAREALLINTHETRADITIONOFVALUEBASEDAPPROACHES,THEDEVELOPMENTOFTHESEDEFINITIONSAREOUTLINEDINTHEFOLLOWINGSECTIONTHEFIRSTANTHROPOLO

5、GICALDEFINITIONWASSETDOWNBYTYLORIN1871HEDEFINEDCULTUREAS“THATCOMPLEXWHOLEWHICHINCLUDEDKNOWLEDGE,BELIEF,ART,MORALS,LAWS,CUSTOMSANDANYOTHERCAPABILITIESANDHABITSACQUIREDBYMANASAMEMBEROFSOCIETY”MORETHANHALFACENTURYLATER,THEANTHROPOLOGISTREDFIELDDEFINEDCULTUREAS“SHAREDUNDERSTANDINGSMADEMANIFESTINACTANDAR

6、TIFACT”KLUCKHOHN,ANOTHERIMPORTANTANTHROPOLOGIST,STATEDTHATNATIONALCULTURE“CONSISTSINPATTERNEDWAYSOFTHINKING,FEELINGANDREACTING,ACQUIREDANDTRANSMITTEDMAINLYBYSYMBOLS,CONSTITUTINGTHEDISTINCTIVEACHIEVEMENTSOFHUMANGROUPS,INCLUDINGTHEIREMBODIMENTSINARTIFACTSTHEESSENTIALCOREOFCULTURECONSISTSOFTRADITIONALI

7、DEASANDESPECIALLYTHEIRATTACHEDVALUES”THESEDEFINITIONSCANBECONSIDEREDASTARTINGPOINTFORSUBSEQUENTDEFINITIONSTHATPLACESIMILAREMPHASISONVALUESASDISTINGUISHINGCHARACTERISTICSOFPEOPLEOFDIFFERENTNATIONALITYFORINSTANCE,KROEBER/PARSONSDEFINENATIONALCULTUREAS“TRANSMITTEDANDCREATEDCONTENTANDPATTERNSOFVALUES,ID

8、EAS,ANDOTHERSYMBOLICMEANINGFULSYSTEMSASFACTORSINTHESHAPINGOFHUMANBEHAVIORANDTHEARTIFACTSPRODUCEDTHROUGHBEHAVIOR”THISDEFINITIONEXPLICITLYADDRESSESTHEIMPORTANCEOFNATIONALCULTUREFORHUMANBEHAVIORTRIANDISDENOTEDCULTUREAS“ANINDIVIDUALSCHARACTERISTICWAYOFPERCEIVINGTHEMANMADEPARTOFONESENVIRONMENTITINVOLVEST

9、HEPERCEPTIONOFRULES,NORMS,ROLES,ANDVALUES,ISINFLUENCEDBYVARIOUSLEVELSOFCULTURESUCHASLANGUAGE,GENDER,RACE,RELIGION,PLACEOFRESIDENCE,ANDOCCUPATION,ANDITINFLUENCESINTERPERSONALBEHAVIOR”INTHESAMETRADITION,BUTMOREPARSIMONIOUSLY,HOFSTEDEDETERMINEDNATIONALCULTURETOBE“THECOLLECTIVEPROGRAMMINGOFTHEMINDTHATDI

10、STINGUISHESTHEMEMBERSOFONEGROUPORCATEGORYOFPEOPLEFROMEACHOTHER”ANOTHERIMPORTANTCONTRIBUTIONHASBEENMADEBYRESEARCHERSINVOLVEDINTHETHEGLOBALLEADERSHIPANDORGANIZATIONALBEHAVIOREFFECTIVENESSRESEARCHPROGRAMTHEAUTHORSDESIGNATEDCULTURESIMPLYAS“SHAREDMOTIVES,VALUES,BELIEFS,IDENTITIES,ANDINTERPRETATIONSOFMEAN

11、INGSOFSIGNIFICANTEVENTSTHATRESULTFROMCOMMONEXPERIENCESOFMEMBERSOFCOLLECTIVESANDARETRANSMITTEDACROSSAGEGENERATIONS”THISRESEARCHBUILDSONHOFSTEDESUNDERSTANDINGOFCULTURE,NOTONLYBECAUSETHEEMPIRICALPARTRELIESONHISCONCEPTUALWORK,BUTALSOBECAUSEHISDEFINITIONHASTHE“MERITOFSIMPLICITY,INSTANTLYCONVEYINGHOWITIST

12、HATNATIONSDIFFERFROMEACHOTHER”2DEFINITIONOFVALUESFROMTHEDEFINITIONSOFCULTUREPROVIDEDABOVE,THETWOCRITICALCOMPONENTSOFCULTUREARECLEARLYTHEPRESENCEOFVALUESANDPRACTICESTHEMOSTPOPULARCONCEPTUALFRAMEWORKSOFCULTURETODAYFOCUSONANALYSESOFVALUEDIFFERENCESTHUS,BEFOREPRESENTINGTHESEFRAMEWORKS,ASHORTDEFINITIONOF

13、VALUESISPROVIDEDISINORDERTHESTUDYOFSOCIETALVALUESHASALONGHISTORYINSOCIOLOGYANDANTHROPOLOGY,WHILETHESTUDYOFINDIVIDUALVALUESHASALONGHISTORYINPSYCHOLOGYTHELITERATUREPROVIDESVARIOUSDEFINITIONSOFTHETERM“VALUE”WHENDESCRIBINGCULTURESKLUCKHOHNDEFINESAVALUEASA“CONCEPTION,EXPLICITORIMPLICIT,DISTINCTIVEOFANIND

14、IVIDUALORCHARACTERISTICOFAGROUP,OFTHEDESIRABLEWHICHINFLUENCESTHESELECTIONFROMAVAILABLEMODES,MEANSANDENDSOFACTIONS”SIMILARLY,ROKEACHCONSIDERSAVALUEAN“ENDURINGBELIEFTHATASPECIFICMODEOFCONDUCTORENDSTATEOFEXISTENCEISPERSONALLYORSOCIALLYPREFERABLETOANOPPOSITEORCONVERSEMODEOFCONDUCTORENDSTATEOFEXISTENCEAV

15、ALUESYSTEMISANENDURINGORGANIZATIONOFBELIEFCONCERNINGPREFERABLEMODESOFCONDUCTORENDSTATESOFEXISTENCEALONGACONTINUUMOFRELATIVEIMPORTANCE”HOFSTEDE,TYPICALLY,OFFERSAREMORECONCISEDESCRIPTIONWHENHEDEFINESAVALUEAS“ABROADTENDENCYTOPREFERCERTAINSTATESOFAFFAIRSOVEROTHERS”ACOMPREHENSIVEEVALUATIONOFMANYDEFINITIO

16、NSOFVALUESBYSCHWATZFOUNDTHEFOLLOWINGCHARACTERISTICSASMOSTFREQUENTLYATTRIBUTEDTOVALUESVALUESAREBELIEFS,BUTTHEYARENOTOBJECTIVE,VALUESREFERTODESIRABLEGOALSANDTOMODESOFCONDUCTTHATPROMOTETHESEGOALS,VALUESTRANSCENDSPECIFICACTIONSANDSITUATIONS,VALUESSERVEASSTANDARDSTOGUIDESELECTIONOFANDTOEVALUATEPEOPLESBEH

17、AVIOR,VALUESFORMASYSTEMOFPRIORITIESASTHEYCANBEORDEREDBYIMPORTANCERELATIVETOEACHOTHERINCONCLUSION,VALUESREFERTORELATIONSHIPSAMONGABSTRACTCATEGORIESANDIMPLYAPREFERENCEFORCERTAINTYPESOFACTIONTHEYPROVIDEPEOPLEWITHASSUMPTIONSABOUTWHATISDESIRABLETHUS,VALUESAREFEELINGSASSUCH,THEYARENONRATIONALVALUESDEALWIT

18、HSUCHTHINGSAS“EVILVERSUSGOOD,”“DIRTYVERSUSCLEAN,”“UGLYVERSUSBEAUTIFUL,”ORPERHAPSMORERELEVANTTOTHERESEARCHQUESTIONSATHAND,“IRRATIONALVERSUSRATIONAL”VALUESARELEARNED,ORPROGRAMMED,EARLYINLIFEONCEAVALUEISLEARNED,ITISINTEGRATEDINTOTHEVALUESYSTEMOFEVERYINDIVIDUALWHILETHESYSTEMOFVALUESISRELATIVELYSTABLE,PA

19、RTICULARVALUESAREINFLUENCEDBYEVERYDAYEXPERIENCESINTHEECOLOGICALANDSOCIOPOLITICALENVIRONMENTSURROUNDINGANINDIVIDUALTHUS,VALUESARENOTONLYSUITABLEINEXAMININGTHEMUTUALCHANGEPROCESSESBETWEENANINDIVIDUALANDITSENVIRONMENT,THEYAREALSOSUITABLEINCOMPARINGANDDIFFERENTIATINGHUMANCOMMUNITIESCREATEDASARESULTOFTHE

20、SECHANGEANDADAPTATIONPROCESSESASVALUESAREHELDCOLLECTIVELYBYAGROUPORSOCIETYANDBYINDIVIDUALS,THESTUDYOFHUMANCOMMUNITIESISCONDUCTEDONTWODISTINCTLEVELSOFANALYSIS,NAMELYTHEINDIVIDUALANDTHECULTURALLEVELATTHEINDIVIDUALLEVEL,VALUESINFLUENCEBEHAVIORBYSETTINGDESIRABLEGOALSRELATIONSAMONGDIFFERENTVALUESATTHEIND

21、IVIDUALLEVELREFLECTTHEPSYCHOLOGICALDYNAMICSOFCONFLICTORCOMPATIBILITYEXPERIENCEDBYINDIVIDUALSWHENPURSINGVALUESATTHECULTURALLEVEL,RELATIONSAMONGDIFFERENTVALUESREFLECTTHESOCIALDYNAMICSOFCONFLICTANDCOMPATIBILITYTHATOCCURWHENSOCIETIESPURSUETHEIRGOALSASOCIETYSSHAREDVALUESINCLUDEIDEASOFWHATISDESIRABLEWHENI

22、NDIVIDUALSWITHINAGIVENSOCIETYCARRYOUTTHEIRSOCIALROLES,THEYDRAWUPONCULTURALVALUESTODECIDEABOUTAPPROPRIATEBEHAVIORHENCE,BOTHCULTURESANDSOCIETIESCANBEDESCRIBEDBYTHEIRSHAREDVALUESFORTHISREASON,MOSTRESEARCHERSMEASURETHEAVERAGEVALUEPRIORITIESOFSOCIETALMEMBERS,KNOWINGTHATTHESEPOINTTOTHEUNDERLYINGCOMMONCULT

23、URALVALUES,INDEPENDENTOFINDIVIDUALDIFFERENCESTHATSTEMFROMCERTAININDIVIDUALEXPERIENCESTHESTUDYOFVALUESATTHECULTURALLEVEL,ORTHESTUDYOFSHAREDVALUES,ISADEQUATEIFTHERESEARCHQUESTIONCONCERNSRELATIONSBETWEENCULTURALVALUESOFSOCIETIESANDOTHERVARIABLESTHEMAJORADVANTAGEOFCONCEPTUALIZINGCULTUREASSHAREDVALUESISI

24、TSABSTRACTIONFROMCERTAINSITUATIONSUNDERWHICHACERTAINBEHAVIOROCCURSTHERELATIVEABSTRACTIONALLOWSFORGENERALIZATIONOFFINDINGSTHEEARLYPHASEINCROSSCULTURALRESEARCHWASMAINLYCOMPARATIVEMERECOMPARATIVESTUDIES,HOWEVER,PROVIDENOEXPLANATIONSOFTHEDIFFERENCESANDSIMILARITIESTHATHAVEBEENDETECTEDINTHESECASES,CULTURE

25、HASBEENTREATEDASA“BLACKBOX”FOREVERYEFFECTTHATCOULDNOTBEEXPLAINEDTHEUNBUNDLINGOFTHECULTURAL“BLACKBOX”BYANALYZINGTHEEFFECTOFCULTURALVALUESISFAVOREDBYMCQUAIDANDISCONSIDEREDNECESSARYBYLEUNGTHENEXTSECTIONDISCUSSESTHERELATIONSHIPBETWEENVALUESANDCULTUREANDPRESENTSTHEMOSTIMPORTANTFRAMEWORKSINTHEANALYSISOFNA

26、TIONALCULTURE3VALUEBASEDFRAMEWORKSOFNATIONALCULTURETHEREHAVEBEENMANYATTEMPTSTOEXPLAINTHERELATIONSHIPBETWEENNATIONALCULTUREANDVALUESTHEFIRSTATTEMPTWASMADEBYKLUCKHOHN/STRODTBECKEMPLOYINGBASICPHILOSOPHICALISSUES,THEAUTHORSSPECIFIEDFIVEDIMENSIONSANDPREDICTIONSABOUTPREFERREDPOSITIONS,ORVALUES,FOREACHCULT

27、UREDUETOTHELACKOFASUFFICIENTLYLARGEEMPIRICALEXAMINATIONOFTHESEPROPOSITIONS,THISAPPROACHHASMEANWHILELOSTITSIMPORTANCEROKEACHDISTINGUISHEDTWOTYPESOFVALUES,NAMELYTERMINALVALUESANDINSTRUMENTALVALUESWHILETERMINALVALUESAREDEFINEDASIDEALIZEDENDSTATESOFEXISTENCE,INSTRUMENTALVALUESARESEENASIDEALIZEDBEHAVIORS

28、TOATTAINENDSTATESROKEACHIDENTIFIED18VALUESOFEACHKINDANDCOMPAREDRANKINGSOFTHOSESETSOFVALUESINFOURCOUNTRIESHOWEVER,METHODOLOGICALISSUESANDTHELACKOFATHEORETICALFOUNDATIONORGANIZINGVALUESINTODIMENSIONSHASDIMINISHEDTHEPOSSIBILITYOFDRAWINGCONCLUSIONSABOUTCULTURALDIFFERENCESHENCE,THISSURVEYWILLNOTBECONSIDE

29、REDFURTHERHEREFROMTHESTUDIESWHICHANALYZECULTURESRATHERTHANINDIVIDUALSASTHEUNITOFANALYSIS,THECONTRIBUTIONSBYHOFSTEDE,TROMPENAARS,ANDSCHWARTZHAVEBEENMOSTINFLUENTIALRECENTLY,THEFRESEARCHPROGRAM,ALONGTERMPROJECT,HASGREATLYCONTRIBUTEDTOTHEEXISTINGLITERATURETHROUGHITSCONCEPTUALIZATIONANDOPERATIONALIZATION

30、OFANINTEGRATEDTHEORYOFTHERELATIONSHIPBETWEENCULTUREANDLEADERSHIPTHESEAPPROACHESWILLBEDISCUSSEDINDETAILINTHEFOLLOWINGSECTIONS31THEHOFSTEDEPROJECTANDTHECHINESECULTURECONNECTIONHOFSTEDEHASINTRODUCEDAPARADIGMINTHESTUDYOFNATIONALCULTURE,WHICHHASSTIMULATEDABLOSSOMINGOFRESEARCHONWORKRELATEDVALUESBOTHWITHIN

31、ANDACROSSCULTURESTODEVELOPTHISPARADIGMOFWORKRELATEDVALUES,HOFSTEDEQUESTIONED116,000EMPLOYEESWITHINORIGINALLY40NATIONALSUBSIDIARIESOFAMULTINATIONALCOMPANY,IBMLATER,SAMPLESFROMANADDITIONALTENCOUNTRIESANDTHREEMULTICOUNTRYREGIONSWEREADDED,ALLOWINGTHETOTALSAMPLETOCOMPRISEDATAFROM72COUNTRIESRESPONDENTSWER

32、EQUESTIONEDTWICE,ONCEBETWEEN1967AND1969ANDAGAINBETWEEN1971AND1972BYQUESTIONINGONLYEMPLOYEESFROMTHEMARKETINGANDSERVICINGDEPARTMENTS,ANDTHEREBYDISTINGUISHINGSEVENLEVELSOFOCCUPATION,RANGINGFROMMANAGERSTOADMINISTRATIVEPERSONNEL,HOFSTEDEATTAINEDAMATCHEDSAMPLELARGEENOUGHTOAPPLYSTATISTICALMETHODSINORDERTOI

33、DENTIFYFOURCULTURALVALUEDIMENSIONSTHEFIRSTTWODIMENSIONS,NAMELYTHEPOWERDISTANCEANDUNCERTAINTYAVOIDANCEDIMENSIONS,HAVEBEENDERIVEDFROMTHEORYSTATISTICALANALYSIS,EGECOLOGICALFACTORANALYSIS,PERFORMEDSUBSEQUENTTOTHEORETICALEXAMINATIONCONFIRMEDTHEEXISTENCEOFTHESETWODIMENSIONSTWOADDITIONALCULTURALDIMENSIONS,

34、INDIVIDUALISMANDMASCULINITY,HAVEBEENUNCOVEREDBYCOMPUTINGANAVERAGESCOREPERNATIONFOREACHITEMONTHEQUESTIONNAIREANDTHENFACTORANALYZINGTHEAVERAGENATIONALSCORESFINALLY,NATIONSCORESONEACHDIMENSIONWERECALCULATEDBYCOMBININGTHEQUESTIONSTHATLOADEDONTHERELEVANTFACTORATTHEENDOFTHISPROCEDURE,FOURDIMENSIONSOFNATIO

35、NALCULTUREHADBEENIDENTIFIED,ANDAREDEFINEDASFOLLOWS1POWERDISTANCEDEALSWITHTHEWAYSOCIETIESORORGANIZATIONSHANDLEINEQUALITIESBETWEENPEOPLEOREMPLOYEESWHILEHIGHPOWERDISTANCECOUNTRIESACCEPTINEQUALITIESOFPOWERANDWEALTH,COUNTRIESRANKINGLOWONTHEPOWERDISTANCEDIMENSIONDOWNPLAYTHEDIFFERENCESBETWEENTHEPOWERANDWEA

36、LTHOFITSCITIZENSACCORDINGLY,THELEVELOFPOWERDISTANCEWITHINASOCIETYISRELATEDTOTHEDEGREETOWHICHAUTHORITYISCENTRALIZEDANDTHEDEGREEOFAUTOCRATICLEADERSHIPINSIDEORGANIZATIONS2UNCERTAINTYAVOIDANCEDESCRIBESTHEEXTENTTOWHICHACULTURESMEMBERSFEELTHREATENEDBYAMBIGUOUSSITUATIONSAHIGHUNCERTAINTYAVOIDANCERANKINGINDI

37、CATESTHATACOUNTRYHASALOWTOLERANCEFORUNSTRUCTUREDSITUATIONS,RESULTINGINTHECREATIONOFARULEORIENTEDSOCIETYTHATINSTITUTESTECHNOLOGY,LAWS,ANDRELIGIONINORDERTOREDUCETHEAMOUNTOFUNCERTAINTYLOWLEVELSOFUNCERTAINTYAVOIDANCERANKINGINDICATETHECOUNTRYISNOTASCONCERNEDABOUTUNCERTAINTYANDHASMORETOLERANCEFORAVARIETYO

38、FOPINIONSTHISRESULTSINASOCIETYTHATISLESSRULEORIENTED,MOREACCEPTINGOFCHANGE,ANDMORERISKTAKING3INDIVIDUALISMDESCRIBESTHEEMPHASISINDIVIDUALSPLACEONTHEIRSELFINTERESTSASOPPOSEDTOTHOSEOFTHELARGERGROUPAHIGHINDIVIDUALISMRANKINGINDICATESTHATINDIVIDUALITYANDINDIVIDUALRIGHTSAREPARAMOUNTWITHINTHESOCIETY,IMPLYIN

39、GTHATSOCIALTIESBETWEENINDIVIDUALSAREVERYLOOSEINDIVIDUALSINSUCHSOCIETIESAREEMOTIONALLYINDEPENDENTOFTHEIRCOMPANYANDTHEIRINVOLVEMENTTENDSTOBECALCULATIVEWORKPRACTICESTENDTOALLOWFORINDIVIDUALINITIATIVEONTHEOTHERHAND,ALOWINDIVIDUALISMRANKINGTYPIFIESSOCIETIESOFAMORECOLLECTIVISTNATUREWITHCLOSETIESBETWEENIND

40、IVIDUALSANDINDIVIDUALSANDTHEIREMPLOYINGCOMPANYTHESECULTURESREINFORCEEXTENDEDFAMILIESANDCOLLECTIVESWHEREEVERYONETAKESRESPONSIBILITYFORFELLOWMEMBERSOFTHEIRGROUPTHERELATIONSHIPBETWEENINDIVIDUALSANDTHEIRCOMPANYISAFFECTEDBYTHEEMOTIONALBINDINGSOFLOYALTYANDDUTY4MASCULINITYDEALSWITHTHEFUNDAMENTALFACTOFTHEDU

41、ALITYOFSEXESANDITSIMPLICATIONSONGENDERROLESINSOCIETYTHEMASCULINITYDIMENSIONFOCUSESONTHEDEGREEASOCIETYREINFORCES,ORDOESNOTREINFORCE,THETRADITIONALMASCULINEWORKROLEMODELOFMALEACHIEVEMENT,CONTROL,ANDPOWERAHIGHMASCULINITYRANKINGINDICATESTHATACOUNTRYEMPHASIZESANDVALUESASSERTIVENESSANDWORKOBJECTIVESSUCHAS

42、EARNINGSANDPROMOTIONSBYCONTRAST,ALOWMASCULINITYRANKINGINDICATESTHECOUNTRYHASALOWLEVELOFDIFFERENTIATIONBETWEENTHEGENDERSINTHESECULTURES,PEOPLEARELESSMOTIVATEDBYMATERIALTHINGS,ANDRELISHTHEIRRELATIONSHIPSWITHOTHERSAFEWYEARSLATER,INTHE1980S,THECONCEPTUALIZATIONOFNATIONALCULTUREINFOURCULTURALVALUEDIMENSI

43、ONSWASEXTENDEDBYINCLUDINGANOTHERDISTINCTDIMENSIONSPECIFICALLYUSEFULINANALYZINGEASTERNCULTURESTHISDIMENSIONWASIDENTIFIEDTHROUGHAJOINTPROJECTBETWEENHOFSTEDEANDBONDBONDPREVIOUSLYHADDEVELOPEDACHINESEVALUESURVEYCVSDATAREANALYSISATTHECOUNTRYLEVELREVEALEDFOURDIMENSIONSTHREEDIMENSIONSCORRELATEDSIGNIFICANTLY

44、WITHPOWERDISTANCE,MASCULINITY,ANDINDIVIDUALISMTHEFOURTHDIMENSION,HOWEVER,DIDNOTCORRELATEWITHUNCERTAINTYAVOIDANCETHISNEWLYIDENTIFIEDDIMENSION,INITIALLYDUBBED“CONFUCIANWORKDYNAMISM,”WASLATERRENAMED“LONGVSSHORTTERMORIENTATION”5LONGVSSHORTTERMORIENTATIONISINDEPENDENTFROMTHEFOURDIMENSIONSDESCRIBEDABOVETH

45、ISDIMENSIONISONLYRELEVANTFORCOMPARINGWESTERNANDASIANCOUNTRIESITFOCUSESONTHEDEGREETHESOCIETYEMBRACES,ORDOESNOTEMBRACE,LONGTERMDEVOTIONTOTRADITIONAL,FORWARDTHINKINGVALUESLONGTERMORIENTATIONCOUNTRIESVALUELONGTERMCOMMITMENTSANDRESPECTTRADITIONINSHORTTERMORIENTATIONCOUNTRIES,CHANGECANOCCURMORERAPIDLYASLO

46、NGTERMTRADITIONSANDCOMMITMENTSDONOTIMPEDECHANGEHOFSTEDEMADEGREATEFFORTSTOPROVETHERELIABILITYANDVALIDITYOFTHECULTURALDIMENSIONSTHROUGHSUBSEQUENTREPLICATIONSVARIOUSREPLICATIONSANDAPPLICATIONSEVENOUTSIDETHECOREOFTHESOCIALSCIENCESMADEHOFSTEDESBOOKCULTURESCONSEQUENCESTHEMOSTINFLUENTIALWORKINSOCIALPSYCHOL

47、OGYBASKERVILLEANALYZEDTHECITATIONSOFCULTURESCONSEQUENCESFROMTHESOCIALSCIENCECITATIONINDEXFROM1981,WHENTHEFIRSTEDITIONOFTHEBOOKAPPEARED,TO1998SHEFOUNDHOFSTEDESAPPROACH“MORETHANASUPERCLASSIC”THECITATIONSDONOTFOLLOWTHEUSUALPATTERNINWHICHCITATIONSINCREASEANDPEAKAFTERTHREETOFIVEYEARSAFTERITSFIRSTPUBLICAT

48、IONANDTHEREAFTERDECREASE,REACHINGASTEADYLEVELAFTERTENYEARSINSTEAD,THEUSEOFHOFSTEDESBOOKISINCREASING,PARTICULARLYINMANAGEMENTSCIENCESANDPSYCHOLOGYASARESULT,HOFSTEDESCONCEPTUALIZATIONOFCULTUREISTHEMOSTWIDELYUSEDINMANAGEMENTACCOUNTINGANDINFORMATIONSYSTEMSRESEARCHDESPITEORMAYBEDUETOTHESUCCESSOFHOFSTEDES

49、PARADIGM,THEREHASBEENEXTENSIVECRITICISMOFITTHEFOURMAJORCRITICISMSWILLBEBRIEFLYRECAPTUREDINTHEFOLLOWINGTHEFIRSTALLEGATIONISTHATSURVEYSARENOTASUITABLEWAYOFMEASURINGCULTURALDIFFERENCESHOFSTEDEADMITSTHATTHESURVEYSSHOULDNOTBETHEONLYWAYWHENCONDUCTINGLARGESCALEEMPIRICALSURVEYS,APPLYINGSTRUCTURALEQUATIONMODELINGSEM,ITISHOWEVERNECESSARYTOHAVEVALIDATEDSCALEATHANDWHICHCANBEUSEDINAQUESTIONNAIREFURTHERMORE,FORREASONSOFCOSTANDTIMEEFFICIENCY,AQUALITATIVERESEARCHAPPROACHWOULDNOTHAVEBEENSUITABLEFORTHISRESEARCHSECOND,MOSTCRITICSCLAIMTHATNATIONSARENOTTHEBESTUNITSFORSTUDYINGCULTURESHOFSTE