1、本科毕业论文外文翻译原文外文题目GLOBALIZATIONANDTHEREORGANIZATIONOFJAPANSAUTOPARTSINDUSTRY出处INTERNATIONALJOURNALOFAUTOMOTIVETECHNOLOGYANDMANAGEMENT作者ULRIKESCHAEDE,SCHOOLOFINTERNATIONALRELATIONSANDPACIFICSTUDIESIR/PSUNIVERSITYOFCALIFORNIA,SANDIEGO原文GLOBALIZATIONANDTHEREORGANIZATIONOFJAPANSAUTOPARTSINDUSTRYINTRODUCTI
2、ONONEPROMINENTFEATUREOFJAPANESEAUTOMOBILEMANUFACTURINGINTHEPOSTWARPERIODWASASYSTEMOFSOURCINGPARTSFROMCLOSELYAFFILIATEDSMALLERFIRMSINLONGTERM,STABLERELATIONSGROWNFROMNECESSITYINTHEEARLY1950SANDTURNEDINTOAVIRTUEWITHTHEINTRODUCTIONOFTHETOYOTAPRODUCTIONSYSTEMINTHE1960S,JAPANSSUBCONTRACTINGSYSTEMHADMITIG
3、ATEDPROBLEMSOFASYMMETRICINFORMATIONANDUNCERTAINTYBYTURNINGSUPPLIERSINTOCOLLABORATORSWITHAKEENINTERESTINALONGTERMRELATIONSHIPTHROUGHKNOWLEDGEINFUSIONTHUS,STABLESUBCONTRACTINGOFFEREDASOLUTIONTOTHEPROBLEMSASSOCIATEDWITHEITHERARMSLENGTHSOURCINGORFULLVERTICALINTEGRATIONEG,AHMADJIAN/LINCOLN2001,ASANUMA198
4、9,DYER2000,MCMILLAN1990,SMITKA1991HOWEVER,THECOMBINATIONOFGLOBALIZATIONWITHCHANGESINAUTOMOTIVEPRODUCTIONANDSOURCINGPROCESSESHAVELEDTOARECONFIGURATIONOFJAPANSSUBCONTRACTINGSYSTEMBEGINNINGINTHE1990S,THELOCATIONOFPRODUCTIONABROADACCELERATEDGREATLY,WHILEPRICECOMPETITIONARRIVEDINJAPANASLARGEBUYERSREALIZE
5、DCOSTSAVINGSFROMGLOBALSOURCINGOFLOWVALUEADDEDPARTSMEANWHILE,MODULIZATIONMEANTTHATFIRSTTIERSUPPLIERSBECAMEMUCHMOREIMPORTANT,ESPECIALLYTHOSEALSOCHARGEDWITHODMORIGINALDESIGNMANUFACTURINGASLARGECARASSEMBLERSSWITCHEDTOGLOBALBULKSOURCINGFORSTANDARDPARTSANDMOREEXTENSIVECOLLABORATIONWITHFIRSTTIERSUPPLIERSFO
6、RCRITICALPARTS,JAPANSPREVIOUSPYRAMIDSHAPEDSUBCONTRACTORKEIRETSUBEGANTOCOLLAPSE,ANDANEWSYSTEMCALLED“CUSTOMERMESHING”EMERGEDWHILETHENEWCOMPETITIONTHREATENEDTHELIVELIHOODOFTHIRDANDFOURTHTIERSUPPLIERS,ITALSOTRIGGEREDARECONFIGURATIONOFJAPANSAUTOPARTSINDUSTRYBYINVITINGMERGERSTHATHAVERESULTEDINLARGER,STRON
7、GERAUTOPARTSCOMPANIESINSPITEOFTHESEIMPORTANTDEVELOPMENTS,THECONVENTIONALWISDOMOFJAPANSSUBCONTRACTORSTRUCTUREHASREMAINEDLARGELYUNREVISEDTHISPAPEREXPLAINSHOWGLOBALIZATIONANDTHEARRIVALOFCOMPETITIONINJAPANHAVETRANSFORMEDTHEPREVIOUSSYSTEMTOFULLYUNDERSTANDJAPANSAUTOMOTIVEINDUSTRYINTHE21STCENTURY,WEHAVETOA
8、PPRECIATETHEDEEPSEATEDCHANGESTHATHAVETAKENPLACESINCETHELATE1990STHEORIESOFJAPANESESUBCONTRACTINGJAPANS“LAWONTHEPROMOTIONOFSUBCONTRACTINGSMALLFIRMS”DEFINESASUBCONTRACTINGRELATIONASONEWHERE“ALARGERCOMPANYCONTRACTSOUTPRODUCTION,REPAIR,CREATIONOFINFORMATIONDELIVERABLES,ORPROVISIONOFSERVICES”FROMASMALLER
9、COMPANYOVERANEXTENDEDPERIODSMEA200534INSTATISTICS,ANAFFILIATEDSUBCONTRACTOR“SHITAUKE”,LIT“LOWERLEVELORDERTAKERS”ISUSUALLYDEFINEDASONETHATSELLSMORETHAN50OFITSOUTPUTTOONELARGERBUYERINTHEAUTOMOTIVEINDUSTRY,ANAFFILIATEDSUBCONTRACTINGRELATIONSHIPISCONSIDEREDONEWHERETHEPARTMAKERSELLSMORETHAN60OFOUTPUTTOON
10、ELARGECLIENT,ORWHERETHELARGEASSEMBLERPROCURESMORETHAN50OFACERTAINPARTFROMWITHINITSSUBCONTRACTORHIERARCHYKOBAYASHI/NO2006THUS,ALMOSTBYDEFINITION,SUBCONTRACTORSAREMOSTLYSMALLFIRMSJAPANSSMALLANDMEDIUMENTERPRISEBASICLAWDEFINESASMALLORMEDIUMSIZEDMANUFACTURINGFIRMSMMASONEWITHCAPITALOFLESSTHAN300MILLIONORF
11、EWERTHAN300EMPLOYEESBETWEENTHE1960SAND1990S,JAPANSSMMSFELLBROADLYINTOTHREECATEGORIES1INDEPENDENTFIRMSWITHASTRONGTECHNOLOGYBASETHATSOLDTOMULTIPLEBUYERS2SUPPLIERSTHATWEREEXCLUSIVESUBCONTRACTORSTOONELARGEBUYERAND3VERYSMALLFIRMSWITHAWEAKTECHNOLOGYBASEPARTSUPPLIERSWEREACRITICALFORCEINTHEPOSTWARPERIOD,BEC
12、AUSESOMEOFJAPANSMANUFACTURINGFIRMSRELIEDEXTENSIVELYONPARTSOUTSOURCINGFROMAHIERARCHYOFTIGHTLYALIGNEDCOMPANIESASSMITKA1991ANDNISHIGUCHI1994HAVESHOWN,JAPANSSUBCONTRACTINGSYSTEMINITIALLYGREWOUTOFNECESSITYINTHEIMMEDIATEPOSTWARYEARS,MANYASSEMBLINGINDUSTRIESSUCHASAUTOMOBILESANDELECTRONICSHADTHEIRPRODUCTION
13、FACILITIESDESTROYEDANDFACEDASCARCITYOFFUNDS,WHICHMADEITDIFFICULTTOBUILDINHOUSEEXPERTISEINAWIDERANGEOFAREASINTHEEARLY1950S,ASMALLERWORKFORCEHELPEDSHIELDCOMPANIESFROMFIERCELABORSTRIKES,UNTILACHANGEINLEGISLATIONRESTRICTEDTHERIGHTSOFUNIONSWAGESATSMALLERFIRMSWEREGENERALLYLOWERTHANATLARGERFIRMSTHUS,FORDIF
14、FERENTREASONSATDIFFERENTTIMES,OUTSOURCINGWASPREFERABLETHUS,LARGECARCOMPANIESFOUNDTHEMSELVESOUTSOURCINGCRITICALPARTSASTRANSACTIONCOSTSECONOMICSWILLIAMSON1975,1985SUGGESTS,USINGTHE“MARKET”INSTEADOFWITHINFIRM“HIERARCHY”TOOUTSOURCECRITICALCOMPONENTSCREATESDEPENDENCIESTHATHAVETOBEMANAGEDWITHGREATCARE,LES
15、TTHESUPPLIERRUNSAWAYWITHTHETECHNOLOGYOREITHERTHEBUYERORSUPPLIEREXPLOITSTHEDEPENDENCYANDSQUEEZESTHETRADINGPARTNERONPRICEONESOLUTIONTOGUARDAGAINSTVALUEEXPROPRIATION,OPPORTUNISMANDTHISHOLDUPTHREATISTOCREATELONGTERMTIESTHROUGHREPEATEDTRADES,TECHNOLOGYSHARING,ANDOWNERSHIPSTAKESEG,MCMILLAN1990,COFFEY/TOML
16、INSON2003MANYJAPANESEMANUFACTURERSBUILTSTABLEGROUPSOFFIRSTTIERSUPPLIERSTHATINTURNRELIEDONSECONDTIERFIRMSANDSOON,SOTHATALARGENUMBEROFSMALLFIRMSWEREPARTOFTHEBUYERSBUSINESSGROUP,AVERTICALKEIRETSUGLOBALIZATIONINJAPANSAUTOMOBILEINDUSTRYGLOBALIZATIONHITJAPANSAUTOMOTIVEINDUSTRYINFULLFORCEINTHEMID1990S,ANDB
17、ROUGHTUNPRECEDENTEDPRESSUREFORCOSTREDUCTIONATALLSTAGESOFPRODUCTION,INPARTICULARFORTHEPARTSUPPLIERSTHEPRESSURESOFGLOBALIZATIONCANBEDISAGGREGATEDINTOTWOSEPARATEFORCESTHEFIRSTWASPRESSURETOPRODUCEABROAD,INITIALLYDUETOTRADEBARRIERSBUTINCREASINGLYDUETOCOSTPRESSURESWHENJAPANLOSTITSLOWCOSTCOUNTRYADVANTAGEIN
18、THE1980STHESECONDWASTHEARRIVALOFCOMPETINGPRODUCTSFROMABROADONTHEDOMESTICMARKETTHISSECONDPRESSUREARRIVEDINTHEMID1990SWITHTHEASCENTOFCHINAASAVIABLECOMPETITOREVENTHOUGHMANYPARTSFROMCHINAWERESOURCEDFROMJAPANESECOMPANIESOPERATINGTHERE,THESELOWERCOSTREIMPORTSSTILLCHALLENGEDTHEPREVIOUSSUPPLIERSTRUCTURESBET
19、WEEN1994AND2006,THERATIOOFINVESTMENTSINPRODUCTIONFACILITIESOVERSEASDOUBLED,FROM10TO20OFTOTALDURINGTHESAMEPERIOD,THERATIOOFMANUFACTURINGABROADCLIMBEDFROMROUGHLY7TOALMOST20,MEANINGTHATEVERYFIFTHPRODUCTMADEBYJAPANESEFIRMSWASNOLONGERMADEINJAPANIMPORTPENETRATIONOFMANUFACTUREDPRODUCTSINCLUDINGREIMPORTSOFJ
20、APANESEGOODSALMOSTTRIPLED,FROMABOUT5INTHEEARLY1980STONEARLY15INTHELATE2000STHISPROCESSOFGLOBALIZATIONOCCURREDINTHREESEPARATEPHASESAFIRSTPUSHTOWARDLOCATINGPRODUCTIONABROADOCCURREDINTHE1970S,INITIALLYTOSOUTHEASTASIAFORLOWCOSTASSEMBLYOFOEMORIGINALEQUIPMENTMANUFACTURERPRODUCTSFORSALEINTHEUSANDEUROPETHIS
21、WASFOLLOWEDBYEXPANSIONABROADINREACTIONTOTRADEFRICTIONSANDLOCALCONTENTRULES,MOSTLYINTOTHEUNITEDSTATESTHEUS/YENEXCHANGERATEREALIGNMENTBASEDONTHEPLAZAACCORDOF1985LEDTOTHE“HIGHYENRECESSION”INJAPAN,ANDPRODUCINGOUTSIDEJAPANBECAMEONEWAYOFHEDGINGAGAINSTINCREASINGLYVOLATILEEXCHANGERATESTRADEDATAREVEALTHERESU
22、LTSOFTHISFIRSTWAVEOFGLOBALPRODUCTIONWHEREASINTHELATE1980S,ROUGHLY30OFJAPANESEEXPORTSWEREDIRECTEDATTHEUS,THISRATIOHADSHRUNKTOABOUT22INTHEEARLY2000SOVERTHOSETWODECADES,HOWEVER,61OFJAPANSCUMULATIVEOUTWARDBOUNDFOREIGNDIRECTINVESTMENTFDIHADGONEINTOTHEUS,INDICATINGTHATTRADEWITHTHEUSHADBEENREPLACEDBYPRODUC
23、TIONINTHEUSTHESECONDWAVEOFHOLLOWINGOUTOCCURREDINTHEMID1990S,INATURNTOWARDSASIAINSEARCHFORLOCATIONSWITHCHEAPLABORTRADEWITHASIAHADALSOBECOMEINCREASINGLYIMPORTANT,GROWINGFROMLESSTHANAFIFTHOFTOTALJAPANESEEXPORTSINTHELATE1980S,TO44IN2004SMALLFIRMS,INPARTICULAR,DIRECTED69OFEXPORTSTOEASTASIA,BUTONLY15TOTHE
24、USATTHESAMETIME,CUMULATIVEJAPANESEFDIINTOASIAHADJUMPEDTO17,SIGNALINGTHEARRIVALOFJAPANESEPLANTSINASIATHETHIRDWAVEOFHOLLOWINGOUTCAMEWITHTHE“CHINABOOM”OFTHEEARLY21STCENTURYCHINASEXPORTSGREWBY77BETWEEN1998AND2003,ANDJAPANWASAMAJORBUYEROFTHESEEXPORTSIN2002JAPANREGISTEREDITSFIRSTTRADEDEFICITWITHCHINATHEIM
25、BALANCEALSOSHOWEDINFDIIN2001,69MAJORJAPANESEFIRMSSHUTDOWNATOTALOF120FACTORIESINJAPAN,AND70OFTHESEWEREMOVEDTOCHINARYAN2003CHANGESINSUBCONTRACTINGINTHEAUTOMOBILEINDUSTRYMETISHOWEDTHATIN1966,WHENTHESYSTEMWASSTILLFORMING,ABOUT53OFALLSMMIDENTIFIEDTHEMSELVESASSUBCONTRACTORS,ANDIN1981THISRATIOHITAHIGHPOINT
26、WITH66OVER80INAUTOMOBILES,TEXTILES,ELECTRONICSANDGENERALMACHINERYTHEFALLINTHERATIOSINCE1981ISREMARKABLE,ANDBY1998ITHADSHRUNKTO48ANDBELOW70INAUTOMOBILESINFORMATIONONTHEOPPOSITEPERSPECTIVETHEDEGREETOWHICHBUYERSRELYONOUTSOURCINGISMOREDIFFICULTTOGATHER,ASITDIFFERSBYINDUSTRY,PRODUCTCATEGORYANDTHESIZEOFTH
27、EBUYERHOWEVER,THISISPARTICULARLYRELEVANTINTHEAUTOMOBILEINDUSTRY,WHEREPARTSACCOUNTFORABOUT70OFVALUEADDEDKOBAYASHI200382FOREXAMPLE,AHMADJIAN/LINCOLN2001SHOWTHATTOYOTAUSEDTOOUTSOURCEALMOSTALLELECTRONICSFROMELECTRONICFUELINJECTIONSYSTEMSTOAIRCONDITIONINGFROMDENSO,FORSOMEPARTSATARATEOF100SOMEONESUMMARIZE
28、DRESULTSFROMFOURYEARSOFMETISBASICSURVEYOFBUSINESSSTRUCTUREANDACTIVITYKIGYKATSUDKIHONCHSA,TOSHOWTHATINTHEEARLY21STCENTURY,THEPERCENTAGEOFOUTSOURCEDINPUTTOTOTALSALESBYMANUFACTURINGFIRMSDECREASEDFROM168TO119THISANNUALSURVEYCOVERSROUGHLY26,000COMPANIESWITHMORETHAN50EMPLOYEES,MEANINGTHATITREFLECTSNOTONLY
29、THEFINALASSEMBLERSBUTALSOOUTSOURCINGACTIVITIESBY1STAND2NDTIERSUPPLIERSTABLE1ALSOHIGHLIGHTSRESULTSFORTHEAUTOMOTIVEINDUSTRYWESEEASIGNIFICANTDROPINTHEVALUEOFOUTSOURCEDPARTSTOTOTALSALESFROM237TO102,ACCOMPANIEDBYANINCREASEINTHEPERCENTAGEOFOUTSOURCINGFROMAFFILIATEDFIRMSHEREMEANINGSUBCONTRACTORSINWHICHTHEB
30、UYERHOLDSANOWNERSHIPSTAKEWHILETHESEDATAAREONLYAVAILABLEBEGINNINGIN2001,THEYPOINTTOADECLINEINOUTSOURCINGOVERALL,YETMOREOUTSOURCINGFROMCORESUBCONTRACTORSTHATIS,OUTSOURCINGOFCOREPARTSISREDUCEDBYMOVINGITINHOUSE,BUTTHOSEPARTSTHATCONTINUETOBEOUTSOURCEDAREPURCHASEDFROMASMALLERSETOFCLOSELYAFFILIATEDFIRMSTHI
31、SINTERPRETATIONISBACKEDBYFIELDRESEARCHREPORTEDBYLINCOLNETAL1998THREEMAINCHANGESHAVEOCCURREDINTHEGLOBALAUTOMOTIVEINDUSTRYSINCETHEMID1990STHATEXPLAINTHESESHIFTS1“GLOBALBESTPURCHASING”,DUETOGLOBALPRICECOMPETITION2ASHIFTINCOMPETITIONTONEXTGENERATIONTECHNOLOGIESSUCHASFUELEFFICIENCY,SAFETY,ANDINFORMATIONS
32、YSTEMSAND3GLOBALEXCESSCAPACITY,THUSINCREASEDCOSTPRESSURESASOF2004,50COUNTRIESBOASTEDANAUTOMOTIVEINDUSTRYGLOBALANNUALSALESSTOODATROUGHLY61MILLIONCARS,BUTGLOBALCAPACITYEXCEEDED80MILLIONCARS,SUGGESTINGANOVERCAPACITYOF30KOBAYASHI/NO20064FORJAPAN,THESEPRESSURESCOMBINEDINTOTWOMAJORSHIFTSINAUTOMOBILEPRODUC
33、TIONTHATUNDERMINEDPREVIOUSSUBCONTRACTORRELATIONSTHESHIFTTOWARDSMODULIZATION,ANDTHEINTENSIFICATIONOFCOSTPRESSURESCONCLUSIONGLOBALEXCESSCAPACITYINTHEEARLY21STCENTURYANDMOUNTINGGLOBALCOSTCOMPETITIONHAVEFORCEDATRANSFORMATIONINTHEBUSINESSMODELOFTHEGLOBALCARINDUSTRY,ANDINPARTICULARINJAPANINTHE1990S,AFIRST
34、REACTIONWASTOFORMGLOBALALLIANCESINASEARCHFORECONOMIESOFSCALEANDSCOPEINTHEEARLY21STCENTURY,COSTCOMPETITIONFORCEDINCREASEDLOCATIONOFCARPRODUCTIONINLOWCOSTCOUNTRIES,STREAMLININGOFCOSTSTHROUGHREDUCTIONOFAUTOMOTIVEPARTS,ANDSHAREDPLATFORMSANDPARTSACROSSMODELSFORJAPANSCARCOMPANIES,THISBROUGHTASWITCHTOSOURC
35、INGGENERIC,LOWVALUEADDEDPARTSONANARMSLENGTHGLOBALBASISACCORDINGTOONEANALYSIS,THENEW“OPENPRICECOMPETITION”LEDTOCOSTSAVINGSOF34IFEXISTINGSUPPLIERSWEREUSED,ANDOF1530IFNEWFIRMSENTEREDTHEMARKETAOYAMA2001THESESHIFTSHAVEPRESENTEDJAPANESEAUTOMOTIVEPARTMAKERSWITHTHREEOPTIONS1FOLLOWTHELARGEAUTOCOMPANIESTOTHEN
36、EWLOCATIONSANDTOCOMPETEGLOBALLYTHROUGHTECHNOLOGICALDIFFERENTIATION2STAYINJAPANBUTUPGRADETOCOMPETEWITHIMPORTSOR3MUDDLETHROUGHANDEVENTUALLYEXITATTHEMACROECONOMICLEVEL,THESEOPTIONSHAVECAUSEDASIMULTANEOUSLEVELINGUPOFFIRSTANDSECONDTIERSUPPLIERS,ANDAWEEDINGOUTOFINEFFICIENTSMALLPARTSMAKERSFROMTHELARGEFIRMS
37、PERSPECTIVE,THEPOSTWARLOGICOFSTABLESUBCONTRACTINGHIERARCHIESISHISTORYINGLOBALMARKETS,LONGTERM“WET”CLOSE,PERSONALRELATIONSWITHACOMPLETELINEUPOFPARTMAKERS,PAINSTAKINGLYARRANGEDFORALLTOCONTRIBUTETOJUSTINTIMEDELIVERYNOLONGERSUPPORTSEFFICIENT,GLOBALMASSPRODUCTIONPRODUCTIONPROCESSESHAVEBEENALTEREDTOSUPPOR
38、TEFFICIENTPRODUCTIONINAVARIETYOFLOCATIONSAROUNDTHEGLOBEANOTHERRAMIFICATIONOFMODULIZATIONISTHEINCREASEININHOUSEPRODUCTIONBYTHEASSEMBLERSTHEMSELVESTHROUGHOUTTHEPOSTWARPERIOD,JAPANESEFIRMSCOMPETEDMOSTLYWITHLOWPRICEDPRODUCTSKNOWNFORRELIABILITYANDCLEVERCOMMERCIALIZATIONOFNEWFEATURES,BUTNOTFORCUTTINGEDGET
39、ECHNOLOGICALINNOVATIONTHESTRATEGICINFLECTIONINTHEGLOBALCARINDUSTRYINTHEEARLY21STCENTURYHASMADEDIFFERENTIATIONTHROUGHTECHNOLOGICALLEADERSHIPIMPERATIVETHISHASELEVATEDTHEROLEOFPROPRIETARYINNOVATIONMANYLARGEFIRMSARERECONFIGURINGTHEIROUTSOURCINGSTRATEGIES,NOTJUSTFROMWHOMTHEYBUY,BUTALSOWHATTHEYBUYANDINWHA
40、TAREASTOFOCUSANDBUILDTHEIROWNCORECOMPETENCIESTOCOMPETETHROUGHINNOVATIONANDDIFFERENTIATIONWHATWEUSEDTOKNOWABOUTJAPANESESUBCONTRACTINGHASBECOMEOBSOLETEAFINALIMPLICATIONOFTHESESHIFTSCOMESFROMTHEIRFORTUITOUSTIMINGJAPANSAUTOPARTSINDUSTRIESUNDERWENTAMAJORREORGANIZATIONBETWEEN1999AND2003DRASTICWEEDINGOUTOF
41、INEFFICIENTSMALLFIRMSONTHEONEHAND,ANDSTRATEGICREPOSITIONINGBYLARGEAUTOPARTSMAKERSONTHEOTHERHADALREADYOCCURREDWHENTHEGLOBALAUTOMOBILEINDUSTRYWASHITBYTHE2008/09SHOCKEVENTHOUGHTHATSHOCKHITJAPANESECOMPANIESEQUALLYHARD,UNLIKETHEIRUSCOMPETITORSTHEYHADALREADYUNDERGONEREFORMANDWERETHEREFOREMUCHBETTERPOSITIO
42、NINGTOWEATHERTHESTORMANDAVOIDLARGESCALEFAILURES本科毕业论文外文翻译外文题目GLOBALIZATIONANDTHEREORGANIZATIONOFJAPANSAUTOPARTSINDUSTRY出处INTERNATIONALJOURNALOFAUTOMOTIVETECHNOLOGYANDMANAGEMENT作者ULRIKESCHAEDE,SCHOOLOFINTERNATIONALRELATIONSANDPACIFICSTUDIESIR/PSUNIVERSITYOFCALIFORNIA,SANDIEGO译文日本汽车零部件产业的全球化和重组概述战后时期的
43、日本汽车制造业的一个突出的特点是采用了一个与采购零件部门保持密切附属关系的小企业，并和其保持长期稳定关系的系统。这种50年代初重要的特点在20世纪被丰田公司引进的新模式所取代。日本的分包制度通过知识的灌输将供应商变成长期的合作伙伴，从而减缓了由于信息不对称和不确定性因素造成的问题。因此，稳定的分包制度为长距离采购和完全垂直整合引起的相关问题提供了解决方案（AHMADJIAN,2001戴尔,2000麦克米伦,1990SMITKA1991）。然而，全球化发展以后，汽车产业的生产和采购流程发生了变化，导致了日本的分包制度的重组。在20世纪90年代开始，国外的生产地发展大大加快，随着全球大型采购商实现
44、了从低附加值的零部件采购以节约成本，价格竞争也冲击了日市场本。同时，模块化意味着第一层供应商变得更加重要，尤其是那些被ODM（原始设计制造）控制的环节。未来更加能够适应环境的发展模式是让第一层供应商采购关键零部件，以往的大型汽车装配模式将会被全球散货模式所取代，日本以前的金字塔形的分包商模式也会瓦解，“客户网格”这一新的系统将会诞生。然而新的竞争模式不仅威胁到了第三和第四级供应商的生计，还通过兼并那些较强的企业引发了日本的汽车零部件产业的重新配置。尽管全球化事态发展的影响力如此巨大，日本自己关于分包商结构的理念基本上没有太大的改变。本文介绍了在全球化竞争影响下，日本是如何改变原有的制度的。为了
45、更全面地了解21世纪日本的汽车零部件产业，我们必须更深层次地去分析90年代末以来汽车零部件产业发生的变化。日本的分包制理论日本的“分包小企业促进法案”被定义为“一个大公司与小公司签订较长时间的合同，由这个小公司完成生产，维修，信息交付，以及提供服务”的这样一种分包关系。根据统计，一个下属分包商通常会将自己50以上的业务交给另一个大买家完成。在汽车产业中，将制造商销售超过60的部分输出到一个大客户，或是在大范围内汇编采购分包层次超过50，就被定义为是下属分包关系（KOBAYASHI,2006）。因此，从定义上来看，这些分包商大多是小公司。日本的中小型企业基本法律界定那些资产少于300万日元或员工
46、数少于300人的公司为中小规模企业。从20世纪60年代到90年代期间，日本的中小型公司大致可分为以下三类（1）具有较强的技术基础，出售给多个买家；（2）被一个大供应商买断；（3）那些技术基础薄弱的小公司。零部件供应商在战后是一个非常主要的经济力量，因为那时的日本的制造业公司都广泛依赖于那些外包公司。就像SMITKA（1991）和NISHIGUCHI（1994）研究表明的那样，最初日本的分包制度是非常必要的在战后几年，许多装配企业如汽车，电子等行业，因为设施被破坏以及面临资金短缺，使得很难再建立起内部的结构模式。在50年代初，因为较小的公司的工资一般比大企业低，一些较小的公司才能免受工人罢工的的
47、威胁，这种现象直到立法出台限制工会权利后才有所好转。因此，由于不同的时间不同的原因，外包制度渐渐被人们所接受。因此，大型汽车企业开始外包自己的零部件生产。交易成本经济学（WILLIAMSON,1975）表明，用“市场”取代公司“等级制”来进行外包将会导致一连串的相关问题，比如必须非常谨慎地进行管理，否则供应商就不会从技术上需求突破口，而是利用挤压价格来进行恶性竞争。一种防止价值征收，机会主义以及“套牢威胁”的解决方案是经过循环贸易，技术交流和所有制的股份来保持长期合作关系（MCMILLAN1990TOMLINSON,2003）。许多日本制造商建造的第一层供应商又依赖于二线公司等等，从而使大批小
48、企业买家可以变成一个稳定的群体。日本汽车产业的全球化在90年代中期，经济全球化全面倾入日本市场，这使得日本汽车产业的各个生产阶段，尤其是供应商这个环节都必须降低成本来应对这种变化。全球化的压力可以被分解为两个单独的力量。第一个是国外生产的压力，由于一开始的贸易壁垒以及越来越多的价格压力，使得日本在20世纪80年代失去了低成本的优势。第二个是国外同类产品的进入而冲击了国内市场的压力。这第二个压力是90年代中期中国作为一个强大的竞争者出现而导致的。尽管许多从中国进口来的产品都是日本公司在那儿生产经营的，但这些低成本的再进口仍然对原有的供应商结构造成了威胁。在1994年至2006年，日本在海外生产设
49、施的投资比例翻了一番，从10达到了20的份额。在同一时期，国外制造的比例从大约7上升至近20，这意味着每五个日本公司所制造的产品不再是日本制造。从20世纪80年代初到2000年后期，进口工业产品的渗透几乎增加了两倍，从大约5到达了近15。这种全球化的进程发生在三个不同的阶段。第一个推动这种本地生产向国外销售的力量发生在70年代，它的模式是东南亚低成本的OEM（原始设备制造商）在美国和欧洲销售产品的装配。其次随着海外扩张的产生的效应，尤其是在美国当地，贸易摩擦和本地规则的矛盾越来越激化。根据1985年的广场协议美元对日元的汇率进行相应的调整导致了日本处于“高日元萧条”时期，而日本的对外生产却越来越成为应对汇率波动避险的最重要的方式之一。贸易数据揭示了这种全球生产的第一浪潮的结果在80年代后期，大约有30是日本出口到美国，而在21世纪初，这一比例已经下降至约22。在这20年中，累计有61的外商直接投资（FDI）进入了美国，这表明日本对美国的贸易已取代了最初他们在美国的生产。第二次浪潮在90年代中期出现，日本开始在亚洲寻求廉价劳动力。从20世纪80年代中后期日本在亚洲的出口总额不到五分之一，到2004年的44表明日本与亚洲的贸易也变得越来越重要。特别是日本的一些小企业，将69的产品输往东亚，只有15输往美国。与此同时，
