1、第六章 词的语义分类,,语义分类(semantic classification of words):,根据词与词之间的语义关系对词进行分类,I. 词与词之间的上下义关系,living,plant,animal,bush,tree,shrub,flower,tiger,wolf,dog,sheep,pine,oak,ash,maple,ram,ewe,lamb,white pine,yellow pine,类概念,种概念,支配词,受支配词,上下义关系/语义内包,语义场,II. 词与词之间的同义关系,词与词可以因表达同一的逻辑概念结合在一起,这些词称之为同义词(synonyms)。,同义词只是意
2、义相同,但形位结构、音位形状和用法不同。,一对或一组同义词并不是一成不变,一个词可与一部分或另一部分词构成同义词。如: look与see, watch, observe 构成同义词,表示“看”的概念,也可以与seem, appear 构成同义词,表示“看上去”的概念。,* Classification of the synonyms1. perfect synonymcompounding/composition 合成法word building/ word formation 构词法breathed consonant/ voiceless consonant 清辅音submarine-U-
3、boat (解体)flying saucer- UFO (分化),2. partial synonymscouple, pair, yoke, brace two things of the same kindcostly, expensive, dear, valuable , invaluable, priceless, precious having a high value or valuation, esp. in terms of money.,一、同义词的来源 (Semantics / F. R. Palmer),英语词汇有两个来源: 一是盎格鲁撒克逊语(本族词 native w
4、ords) 一是法语、拉丁语和希腊语(外来词 borrowed words)“国会” Parliament(英国), the Congress(美国), the Bandestag (德国), the National Assembly(法国), the Riksdag(瑞典), the Storting(挪威), the Eduskuntsa(芬兰), the Knesset(以色列), the Diet(日本),本族语与外来语混合的同义词有的结成一对(doubles)有的组成三词(triplets)一组. 如:,brotherlyfriendlyheartyhomelykinglytime
5、risefast,Native Words Borrowed Words,fraternalamicablecordialdomesticroyal regalage epochmount ascendfirm secure,成对的同义词,一个是本族词,文体上属于口语词,另一个是法语或拉丁语借词,属于书面语。三个一组的同义词:本族语口语化,朴素亲切; 法语借词或希腊语、拉丁语借词是书面语,特别是希腊语和拉丁语文言味更浓,显得凝重。,英语中有短语动词以及短语动词转化而来的名词,往往会有一个单个词和它同义。pick up - choosegive up - abandonlay out - arr
6、angementcall-up - conscription差异主要体现在 文体方面,短语口语化;单词中性,带有书面语气。,二、语义同义场,1、定义:,随着英语词汇的不断丰富,同义词群随之形成,由两个或三个组成的词义群就扩大成由四个、五个或十来个构成的词义群。同义群中有一个起支配作用的词,体现了其他同义词所共有的特征,这种词叫主导同义词,受其制约的语义场称之为语义同义场(semantically synonymous field)。,2、同语义场的区别,语义场中各个词所表示的意义不同,而语义同义场中的词所表达的意义基本相同或相似的。,如:leave*, depart, quit, retire
7、, withdraw,部分语义同义场实录(How To Enlarge And Improve Your Vocabulary: Richard D. Mallery):,admit: own, concede, confess, acknowledgeartificial: unnatural, affected, false, counterfeit, spuriousawkward: clumsy, ungainly, ungraceful, unskillful, embarrassing, disconcertingbrief: short, succinct, terse, con
8、densed, momentary, quick, fleeting.,三、同义词之间的差异 1、语义上的差异 表达同一概念但在语义上有细微差异的同义词叫做意念同义词 (ideographic synonyms)或叫做相对同义词(relative synonyms). 概念意义是词义的核心,分析同义词在概念意义中的细微差别,是同义词辨析的核心。 如:amaze astound 使惊呼 a. A teacher was amazed to find that a lazy student had gained a mark of 100 in an important test. 难以相信 b.
9、 A woman may be astounded to learn that her dearest friend has been spreading malicious gossip about her. 难以相信的程度更高,escape flee 逃、逃脱 a. The wolf rolled over and played dead to escape capture by the farmer. b. They lost no time in fleeing the burning hotel. 更强调在紧急情况下仓促逃跑denote connote 意指 a. Scientist
10、s are interested in stripping language down to what it can exactly denote(指词的确切和字面的意义), while psychologists, poets and literary critics are interested in the hidden or penumbral associations words connote(词的隐含意义). b. Bright denotes intense light, but in certain contexts it can also connote purity or
11、 beauty or other intangible qualities.,inspire 和encourage中:同义词, “鼓舞、鼓励、激励”西:不是同义词 在韦氏同义词典中inspire和inform, animate,fire是同义词,它们共同意义是: “to infuse into a person or a thing a spirit, a principle, an idea, a passion or the like that gives him or ineffective power or an urge to action or activity.” “给人或物灌输
12、进某种精神、原则、思想、激情等,给人或物力量,或行动的强烈愿望。”,beautiful, pretty, handsome, lovelybeautiful: 普通,含义广; 用于可爱的人或物;指形式和颜色的完美;给人以愉快的印象,给人以美和高贵的感觉的人或物;女性和小男/女孩;pretty: 不如beautiful强烈;小巧,俏丽;没有文雅、高贵的含义;女性和孩子;handsome: 用做“漂亮”时,多指男性;形容女性,指“健壮和举止大方的美”,“身材匀称,端正庄重”;指物时“悦目,匀称,端正,庄重”lovely: 强调说话人的感情,感受;能引起赞赏和喜悦的人和物;,look, glance
13、, stare, gaze, eye, peeplook 通俗常用,泛指“看”的动作glance “一瞥” a short, quick lookstare “盯着看、目不转睛的看” a very surprised look or a very ill-mannered gazegaze “凝视,注视” a long, steady look, often caused by surprise or admirationeye “注视,察看” watch carefullypeep “偷看,窥视” a cautious glance,表示“笑”的一组同义词smile微笑 grin 咧嘴笑,露
14、齿而笑 chortle 哈哈大笑 guffaw 狂笑snigger 暗笑 titter 窃笑 laugh大笑,嘲笑 roar 哄笑,狂笑chuckle 含笑,暗笑 giggle咯咯笑,2、感情色彩和语体色彩上的差异 英语中有的词具有字面意义或隐含的意义或兼而有之。 ( denote denotative connote connotative )如:1. statesman politician 2. singer vocalist 3. philanthropist do-gooder 4. intellectual egg-head 5. theft rip-off,2.1 根据感情色彩上
15、的差异, 同义词可分为高雅(elevated), 中性(neutral), 粗俗(vulgar)等。近代语言学家从语体角度来分析同义词,不同的同义词出现在不同语体中,带有语体色彩。根据词的语体色彩,我们可以给词标上正式、非正式、口语、俚语等。Martin Joos在Five Clocks一书中又将语体色彩分成五种:frozen, formal, consultative, casual, intimate如: horse (中性) consultative 正式steed formal charger (高雅色彩) frozen nag casual 非正式plug (粗俗色彩)intimat
16、e,2.2 具有不同语体色彩的同义词从使用平面(level of usage)角度来分析可概括为书面式、口语式、正式和非正式等四种。,2.3 现代语体学家从使用域(register) 角度来探讨语言现象,这为同义词的研究提供了更为有利的条件。使用域不仅用来指某个特定领域所用的词汇和语法现象,有时也指使用某些特定词汇、语法现象的领域。使用域告诉我们用词要注意场合,并考虑语言交际双方之间的关系,这是十分必要的。但是由于词的灵活性是相当大的,所以也有例外。,3. 在词的搭配和位置分布上的差异 同义词不仅在语义或语体色彩上有差异,而且在 与其他词搭配使用上也有区别。a. “变质腐坏” rancid b
17、acon/butteraddled egg rotten butter/eggsour milkb. “一群” a flock of/sheep a herd of /cows a school of/whales a pride of/lions a group of /people, trees, housesc. “指责” accuse ofcharge with rebuke forreproachwith/for 同义词有时在句中的分布位置不同。 如:“活着的” the living creature, the creature alive “睡着的” the sleeping ba
18、by, the baby asleep,在现代英语中,同义词的使用存在两种倾向: a. 矫揉造作,翻新猎奇,破坏了文风。 b. 用词得体,交辉相映,丰富了表现力。,III. 词与词之间的反义关系,词与词之间存在着相反或对立的语义关系,这种关系叫做反义关系(antonymy)。词义相反或对立的词叫做反义词(antonyms)。,语言学家从不同的角度,不同的标准划分反义词:,一、以词根和派生为依据的传统划分标准 1.由不同词根构成的反义词叫做词根反义词(root antonyms)。 如:clear -vague, large - small,up-down 2. 通过派生法,用词缀构成的反义词叫
19、做派生反义词(derivative antonyms)。这一类反义词的特点是词根相同,而加上了前缀或后缀构成反义词。 如:pleasant - unpleasant polite - impolite honest-dishonest prewar-postwar useful-useless hopeful-hopeless,二、以语义对比(semantic contrast)为依据来划分的现代标准。这可分成以下几种:,1、相对性反义词(contraries) “两级反义词,相反词,可分级反义词” 即语义相对,形成两极。 如:wide - narrow, old - young, big -
20、 small 1.1 特点: a.语义(semantic polarity) 归一性/两极性和相对性(relativity),即语义的两极相比较而存在 如: He is (very) old. He is older than you.,b. 对立的渐进性(gradual) 反义词的两级中间可插进表示不同程度性质的词语,体现出对立的层次性。 如:beautiful pretty goodlooking plain ugly love attachment liking indifference antipathy hate 标记项the marked terms 无标记项 the unmark
21、ed termsyoung/old How old are you?high/low How high is that building? 无标记项比有标记具有更一般化的意义,用于更广泛的语言环境中。,2、互补反义词(complementaries) “绝对反义词,矛盾词,二元反义词,互补词” 反义词的互补性指的是非此即彼或非彼即此( The denial of one means the assertion of the other or vice versa.) 如:If John is not married, he is single. If John is not single, h
22、e is married. 这一类的反义词有: dead - alive, boy - girl, brother - sister *这一类反义词中不能再插入表示层次性对立的词语。,3、换位反义词(conversives) “关系反义词,对立词” 换位反义词指的是两个词在语义上既表示对立关系,又表示相互依存的关系 (There is an interdependence of meaning.), 一方的存在以另一方的存在为前提 (One member of the pair presupposes the other member.),双方形成一个对立的统一体(a unity of opp
23、osites)。如: buy - sell, give - receive, lend - borrow husband - wife, parent - child up -below go-come If A sells a watch to B, B buys a watch from A. If A gives a pen to B, B receives a pen from A.,4. 多项不相容词(semantic incompatibles) 如: north south east west spring summer autumn winter January Februar
24、y March December Sunday MondaySaturday 几组多项不相容词, 几个词之间对立,体现了一种多元对立关系,三. 反义词的特点: 1. 英语中有的词具有一词多义和一词多性的特征,其反义词不可能是固定不变的一个词。 如:fast fast (不褪色)-loose fast (禁食)- eat 因为与其搭配的词不同反义词也会不同。 如: handsome - ugly/meagre(微薄的) fresh - stale(食物不新鲜的)/stuffy(缺乏新鲜空气的,不通气的) 反义词的构成还受上下文制约。 如:difficult - easy/obliging (乐于
25、助人的) decline - rise /improve,2. 反义词与用not构成的句法否定式(syntactic negation)相比在语义上有强弱的区别。 如 unhappy- not happy impossible- not possible Charles Dickens 用过一句句子可充分说明两者之间的区别: I am sorry to inform you that we are not at all satisfied with your sister; we are very much dissatisfied with her. 作者虽然用了at all 加强了语意,但
26、嫌之不够,就补用了dissatisfied 一词,再加上very much,更强调了“不满意”的程度。,3.英语中有时同一个词义也可以有两个反义词,一个是完全否定,一个是意义对立。 popular- unpopular(不受欢迎的) nonpopular(并非受欢迎的) productive-unproductive(完全否定) destructive(意义相对),四、反义词的应用 反义词可用作一种修饰手段突出两种不同概念的对比,给听者或读者留下深刻印象。如:More haste, less speed。欲速则不达 Sweet as honey, bitter as gall。口蜜腹剑 Wha
27、t is done cannot be undone。生米已成熟饭木已成舟。 first and last 总的来说 to play fast and loose 反复无常 through fair and foul 在任何情况下,It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the age of incredulity, it was the seas
28、on of light, it was the epoch of darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we have everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct to other ways -Charles Dickens: A Tale of Two Tales 这是最好的时代,也是最坏的时代;是智慧的时代,也是愚蠢的时代;
29、是信仰的时代,也是怀疑的时代;是光明的季节,也是黑暗的季节;是充满希望的春天,也是令人绝望的冬天;我们的前途拥有一切,我们的前途一无所有;我们正走向天堂,我们也直下地狱,反义词的一种灵活运用“矛盾修饰法”,指将两个意义互相矛盾或互不协调的反义词巧妙地置于一处构成修饰语,与被修饰语在实质上或特征上互相对立又协调统一的一种修辞方法。,如: living death 虽生犹死 visible darkness 看得见的黑暗 a clever fool 聪明的笨蛋 audible stillness 听得见的寂静 open secret 公开的秘密 painful pleasure 痛苦的快乐 exp
30、ressionless expression 毫无表情的表情 a victorious defeat 胜利的失败 cruel kindness 残酷的仁慈 thunderous silence 无声胜有声 life-death struggle 生死搏斗,IV. 词与词之间的同形或同音异义关系,同形或同音异义词(homonyms)指的是形或音同而意义不同的词。形同而音和义不同的词叫同形异义词(homographs)。如:bow 音同而形和义不同的词叫同音异义词(homophones)。如:air heir继承人 sea see ore 矿石 oar 划桨者,桨 sent cent - scent形和音同而义不同的词叫完全同音同形异义词(perfect homonyms)如:base bark ball seal,同形或同音异义词形成的原因有如下几种:一、多义词的词义分化(split of polysemy) 如:flower/ flour二、音变的汇合(converging sound development) 如:I / eye三、词语的缩略(shortening of words) 如:pop/ popular,Thank You !,